Barley with altered branching enzyme activity and starch and starch containing products with an increased amylose content

ABSTRACT

Barley havng a reduced level of SBEIIa activity produces grain having a high relative amylose content. The barley might additionally have reduced levels of SBEIIb activity. The barley grain of this invention can be of a non-shrunken phenotype despite a lesion in the amylopectin synthesis pathway.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0001] This invention relates to a barley plant with a reduced starch branching enzyme IIa (SBEIIa) activity in the endosperm, leading to a kernel starch with an increase in relative amylose content. The invention also relates to grain and starch and food and non-food products obtained therefrom.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0002] In cereals, starch makes up approximately 45-65% of the weight of the mature grain. The starch is composed of two types of molecule, amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is an essentially linear molecule composed of α-1,4 linked glucosidic chains, while amylopectin is highly branched with α-1,6 glucosidic bonds linking linear chains.

[0003] The synthesis of starch in the endosperm of higher plants is carried out by a suite of enzymes that catalyse four key steps. Firstly, ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase activates the monomer precursor of starch through the synthesis of ADP-glucose from G-1-P and ATP. Secondly, the activated glucosyl donor, ADP-glucose, is transferred to the non-reducing end of a pre-existing α1-4 linkage by starch synthases. Thirdly, starch branching enzymes introduce branch points through the cleavage of a region of α-1,4 linked glucan followed by transfer of the cleaved chain to an acceptor chain, forming a new α-1,6 linkage. Starch branching enzymes are the only enzymes that can introduce the α-1,6 linkages into α-polyglucans and therefore play an essential role in the formation of amylopectin. Finally, starch debranching enzymes remove some of the branch linkages although the mechanism through which they act is unresolved (Myers et al., 2000).

[0004] While it is clear that at least these four activities are required for normal starch granule synthesis in higher plants, multiple isoforms of each of the four activities are found in the endosperm of higher plants and specific roles have been proposed for individual isoforms on the basis of mutational analysis (Wang et al, 1998, Buleon et al., 1998) or through the modification of gene expression levels using transgenic approaches (Abel et al., 1996, Jobling et al., 1999, Scwall et al., 2000). However, the precise contributions of each isoform of each activity to starch biosynthesis are still not known, and it is not known whether these contributions differ markedly between species. In the cereal endosperm, two isoforms of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase are present, one form within the amyloplast, and one form in the cytoplasm (Denyer et al., 1996, Thorbjornsen et al., 1996). Each form is composed of two subunit types. The shrunken (sh2) and brittle (bt2) mutants in maize represent lesions in large and small subunits respectively (Girouz and Hannah, 1994). Four classes of starch synthase are found in the cereal endosperm, an isoform exclusively localised within the starch granule, granule-bound starch synthase (GBSS), two forms that are partitioned between the granule and the soluble fraction (SSI, Li et al., 1999a, SSII, Li et al., 1999b) and a fourth form that is entirely located in the soluble fraction, SSIII (Cao et al, 2000, Li et al., 1999b, Li et al, 2000). GBSS has been shown to be essential for amylose synthesis (Shure et al., 1983), and mutations in SSII and SSIII have been shown to alter amylopectin structure (Gao et al, 1998, Craig et al., 1998). No mutations defining a role for SSI activity have been described.

[0005] Three forms of branching enzyme are expressed in the cereal endosperm, branching enzyme I (SBEI), branching enzyme IIa (SBEIIa) and branching enzyme IIb (SBEIIb) (Hedman and Boyer, 1982, Boyer and Preiss, 1978, Mizuno et al., 1992, Sun et al., 1997). In maize and rice, high amylose phenotypes have been shown to result from lesions in the SBEIIb gene, also known as the amylose extender (ae) gene (Boyer and Preiss, 1981, Mizuno et al., 1993; Nishi et al., 2001). In these SBEIIB mutants, endosperm starch grains showed an abnormal morphology, amylose content was significantly elevated, the branch frequency of the residual amylopectin was reduced and the proportion of short chains (<DP17, especially DP8-12) was lower. Moreover, the gelatinisation temperature of the starch was increased. In addition, there was a significant pool of material that was defined as “intermediate” between amylose and amylopectin (Boyer et al., 1980, Takeda, et al., 1993b). In contrast, maize plants mutant in the SBEIIa gene due a mutator (Mu) insertional element and consequently lacking in SBEIIa protein expression were indistinguishable from wild-type plants in the branching of endosperm starch (Blauth et al., 2001), although they were altered in leaf starch. Similarly, rice plants deficient in SBEIIa activity exhibited no significant change in the amylopectin chain profile in endosperm (Nakamura. 2002).

[0006] In maize, the dull1 mutation causes decreased starch content and increased amylose levels in endosperm, with the extent of the change depended on the genetic background, and increased degree of branching in the remaining amylopectin (Shannon and Garwood, 1984). The gene corresponding to the mutation was identified and isolated by a transposon-tagging strategy using the transposon mutator (Mu) and shown to encode the enzyme designated starch synthase II (SSII) (Gao et al., 1998). The enzyme is now recognized as a member of the SSIII family in cereals. Mutant endosperm had reduced levels of SBEIIa activity associated with the dull1 mutation. No corresponding mutation has been reported in other cereals. It is not known if these findings are relevant to other cereals, for example barley.

[0007] WO94/09144 suggests the use of sense and antisense genes to alter the natural ratios of starch synthase (SS) and SBE in maize. However, no data are presented to substantiate the proposed molecular strategies and there is no suggestion of specifically reducing the activity of SBEIIa.

[0008] In potato, down regulation of SBEI alone causes minimal affects on starch structure (Filpse et al., 1996), although further work identified some qualitative changes (Safford et al., 1998). However, in potato the down regulation of SBEII and SBEI in combination increased the relative amylose content much more than the down-regulation of SBEII alone (Schwall et al., 2000).

[0009] Two types of debranching enzymes are present in higher plants and are defined on the basis of their substrate specificities, isoamylase type debranching enzymes, and pullulanase type debranching enzymes (Myers et al., 2000). Sugary-1 mutations in maize and rice are associated with deficiency of both debranching enzymes (James et al., 1995, Kubo et al., 1999) however the causal mutation maps to the same location as the isoamylase-type debranching enzyme gene. In the Chlamydomonas sta-7 mutant (Mouille et al., 1996), the analog of the maize sugary-1 mutation, isoamylase activity alone is down regulated. Starch biosynthesis genes that have been cloned from cereals are listed in Table 1.

[0010] Starch is widely used in the food, paper and chemical industries. The physical structure of starch can have an important impact on the nutritional and handling properties of starch for food or non-food or industrial products. Certain characteristics can be taken as an indication of starch structure including the distribution of amylopectin chain length, the degree of crystallinity and the presence of forms of crystallinity such as the V-complex form of starch crystallinity. Amylopectin chain length may be an indicator of altered crystallinity and altered gelatinisation and is also thought to have a correlation with reduced retrogradation of amylopectin. Additionally, varied amylopectin chain length distribution is thought to reflect organoleptic properties of food in which the starch is included in significant amounts. Reduced crystallinity of a starch may also be indicative of a reduced gelatinisation temperature of starch and is thought to be associated with enhanced organoleptic properties.

[0011] The relatively high gelatinisation temperature of most high amylose starches is a disadvantage for certain food applications. Gelatinisation temperature is reflective of the comminution energy required to process such foods. Higher temperatures are normally required to process grain or flour to manufacture foods from such grains or starches. Therefore, products having high amylose starches are generally more expensive. In addition, consumers may need to use longer times and higher temperatures to prepare the manufactured foods or to make foods from flour having high amylose starches. High amylose starches having reduced or normal gelatinisation temperatures would be advantageous in many food applications.

[0012] Starch composition, in particular the form called resistant starch, has important implications for bowel health, in particular health of the large bowel. Accordingly, high amylose starches have been developed in certain grains such as maize for use in foods as a means of promoting bowel health. The beneficial effects of resistant starch result from the provision of a nutrient to the large bowel wherein the intestinal microflora are given an energy source which is fermented to form inter alia short chain fatty acids. These short chain fatty acids provide nutrients for the colonocytes, enhance the uptake of certain nutrients across the large bowel and promote physiological activity of the colon. Generally if resistant starches or other dietary fibre is not provided the colon is metabolically relatively inactive.

[0013] Another nutritional component of the grains and in particular of barley is β-glucan. β-glucan consists of glucose units bonded by β (1-4) and/or β (1-3) glycosidic linkages and are not degraded by human digestive enzymes, making them suitable as a source of dietary fibre. β-glucans can be partially digested by endogenous colonic bacteria which fermentation process gives rise to short chain fatty acids (predominantly acetate, propionate and butyrate) which are beneficial to mucosal cells lining the intestine and colon (Sakata and Engelhard, 1983). Ingestion of β-glucan also has the effect of increasing bile acid excretion leading to a reduction in total serum cholesterol and low density lipoproteins (LDL) with a lowering of the risk of coronary disease. Similarly β-glucan acts by attenuating excursions in postprandial blood glucose concentration. It is thought that these effects may also be based on the increase of viscosity in the contents of the stomach and intestines.

[0014] Whilst modified starches or β glucans, for example, can be utilised in foods that provide functionality not normally afforded by unmodified sources, such processing has a tendency to either alter other components of value or carry the perception of being undesirable due to processes involved in modification. Therefore it is preferable to provide sources of constituents that can be used in unmodified form in foods.

[0015] Barley (Hordeum vulgare) is the fourth largest cereal grain crop produced worldwide and is relatively underutilized in terms of human consumption aside from its use to produce alcoholic beverage. On average, barley grain contains about 64% starch, 11% protein and 5% β-glucan (normally 3-6%). The remaining 20% includes moisture, fiber and other minor components.

[0016] Known variation in barley starch structure is limited relative to the variation available in maize. Mutants in SBEIIb, corresponding to the amylose-extender phenotypes in maize or rice, have not been characterized in barley. The phenotype conferred by SBEIIa or SBEIIb mutations in barley is unknown. The most highly characterised mutations are waxy and a high amylose mutation identified as AC38. High Amylose Glacier (AC38) has relatively modest increases in amylose content to a maximum of about 45% of total starch. Double mutants with a waxy phenotype have also been constructed and analysed (Schondelmaier et al., 1992; Fujita et al, 1999).

[0017] Other mutants of barley having high amylose starch contents have been identified. Chemically induced mutants in the SSIIa gene had higher levels of amylose in kernel starch, to about 65-70% (WO 02/37955 A1). The mutants M292 and M342 also showed substantially reduced average grain weight as a consequence of reduced starch synthesis, from a mean weight of about 51 mg for the parent line Himalaya to 32 and 35 mg for M292 and M342, respectively. Although the mutants retained the length and width of the wild-type grain, they were flattened from 2.8 mm average thickness for Himalaya to 1.6-1.8 mm thickness and had an essentially unfilled central region, which Resulted in poorer milling characteristics. The ratio of grain length (L) to thickness (T) was found to be a useful diagnostic parameter for the mutant alleles, with mutants and wild-type seeds having an L:T ratio of >3.5 and <3.5 respectively. The starch content of the mutant lines was reduced from 49.0% for Himalaya to 17.7 and 21.9% for M292 and M342, respectively. It was shown that while there was a decrease in amylose content per grain from 6.2 mg per caryopsis to 4.0 and 4.8 mg in M292 and M342, respectively, there was a dramatic reduction in amylopectin content per caryopsis from 18.7 in Himalaya to 1.6 and 2.9 mg in the mutants. This showed that the high relative amylose level was a result of decreased amylopectin production. Grain β-glucan levels were increased in the mutants to above 10%. The starch showed reduced gelatinisation temperatures. The SSIIa mutants had an altered distribution of SBEIIa and SBEIIb activities between the starch granule and soluble fractions of the endosperm, however, they were essentially unaltered in the level of these activities in the endosperm as a whole (WO 02/37955; Morell et al., 2003).

[0018] Whilst elevated amylose starches of these types are useful, a barley starch with higher amylose contents is preferred, in particular if associated with improved starch synthesis and other characteristics, for example a reduced need for post-harvest modification. Such starch products are also relatively resistant to digestion and bring a greater health benefit.

[0019] General

[0020] Those skilled in the art will be aware that the invention described herein is subject to variations and modifications other than those specifically described. It is to be understood that the invention described herein includes all such variations and modifications. The invention also includes all such steps, features, compositions and compounds referred to or indicated in this specification, individually or collectively, and any and all combinations of any two or more of said steps or features.

[0021] Throughout this specification, unless the context requires otherwise the word “comprise”, and variations such as “comprises” and “comprising”, will be understood to imply the inclusion of a stated integer or step or group of integers or steps but not the exclusion of any other integer or step or group of integers or steps. The present invention is not to be limited in scope by the specific embodiments described herein, which are intended for the purposes of exemplification only. Functionally-equivalent products, compositions and methods are clearly within the scope of the invention, as described herein.

[0022] Bibliographic details of the publications referred to by author in this specification are collected at the end of the description. The references mentioned herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. Reference herein to prior art, including any one or more prior art documents, is not to be taken as an acknowledgment, or suggestion, that said prior art is common general knowledge in Australia or forms a part of the common general knowledge in Australia.

[0023] As used herein, the term “derived from” shall be taken to indicate that a particular integer or group of integers has originated from the species specified, but has not necessarily been obtained directly from the specified source.

[0024] The designation of nucleotide residues referred to herein are those recommended by the IUPAC-IUB Biochemical Nomenclature Commission, wherein A represents Adenine, C represents Cytosine, G represents Guanine, T represents Thymidine.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0025] In a first aspect the invention might be said to reside in grain obtained from a barley plant, the barley plant having a reduced level of SBEIIa enzyme activity in the endosperm, starch of said grain having a relative amylose content of at least 40% (w/w). The relative amylose content might preferably be higher than 50% or 75%, and preferably the grain is non-shrunken.

[0026] In a second aspect the invention might be said to reside in a barley grain comprising starch having a relative amylose content of at least 75% (w/w).

[0027] In a third aspect the invention might be said to reside in flour or wholemeal obtained from the grain of the first or second aspects of the invention, or food products incorporating such flour or wholemeal.

[0028] In a fourth aspect the invention might be said to reside in starch obtained from grain of a barley plant, the barley plant having a reduced level of SBEIIa enzyme activity in the endosperm, said starch being unmodified and having a relative amylose content of at least 40% (w/w). In a specific form of the fourth aspect the barley plant additionally has a reduced level of SBEIIb enzyme activity in the endosperm.

[0029] In a fifth aspect the invention might be said to reside in a composition comprising the starch according to the fourth aspect of the invention and another food ingredient or water.

[0030] In sixth aspect the invention might be said to reside in a composition comprising starch granules of barley endosperm and another food ingredient or water, wherein the starch of the starch granules comprises at least 75% (w/w) amylose.

[0031] In a seventh aspect the invention might be said to reside in a barley plant having a reduced level of SBEIIa enzyme activity, wherein starch in grain of the barley plant has a relative amylose content of at least 40% (w/w) or preferably at least 50% or at least 75%.

[0032] In an eight aspect the invention might be said to reside in a method of producing a barley plant with a reduced level of SBEIIa enzyme activity in the endosperm, starch of grain of the barley plant having an amylose content of at least 40% (w/w), the method comprising the steps of, a) introducing a genetic variation into a parent barley plant; and b) identifying progeny plants or seed of the parent barley plant that have reduced SBEIIa activity.

[0033] In a ninth aspect the invention might be said to reside in a method of producing a barley plant having reduced activity of both SBEIIa and SBEIIb enzyme activities in the endosperm which comprises: a) mutagenising seed from a plant having reduced activity of SBEIIa enzyme activity; or b) mutagenising seed from a plant having reduced activity of SBEIIb enzyme activity; or c) crossing a plant having reduced SEBEIIa enzyme activity with a plant having reduced SBEIIb enzyme activity; and identifying a barley plant having reduced activity of both SBEIIa and SBEIIb.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0034]FIG. 1. Nucleotide sequence of the barley SBEIIa cDNA (SEQ ID No. 1).

[0035]FIG. 2. Nucleotide sequence of the barley SBEIIb cDNA (SEQ ID No. 2).

[0036]FIG. 3. Sequence of the Starch Branching Enzyme Ia gene (SEQ ID No. 3) (wSBE II-D1) from A. tauschii, corresponding to the D genome SBEIIa gene of hexaploid wheat (T. aestivum).

[0037]FIG. 4. Partial wheat SBEIIb gene sequence (SEQ ID No. 4) (wbe2b genomic).

[0038]FIG. 5. Schematic of duplex-RNA constructs. A. The order of the gene elements used were promoter, SBEIIa or SBEIIb gene sequence (exons 1, 2 and 3) in sense orientation, intron (intron 3), SBEIIa or SBEIIb gene sequence (exons 1, 2, 3 and 4) in antisense orientation, and transcription terminator/polyadenylation sequence. B. The transcript of the ds-SBEIIa and ds-SBEIIb genes forms a “hairpin” RNA structure with a double-stranded region formed by hybridization between the sense and antisense sequences. The intron sequence bordered by the G and AG nucleotides is spliced out.

[0039]FIG. 6. PCR analysis of ds-SBEIIa and ds-SBEIIb transgenic lines of barley. The primer pairs BX17F/AR2bkpnR for SBEIIb and BX17F/AR2akpnR for SBEIIa that amplifies the first and second fragments of respective constructs which included the exons 1,2,3 and intron 3 (sense orientation) were used to identify positive transgenic lines. GP is for the untransformed Golden Promise. The central lane shows molecular size markers.

[0040]FIG. 7. Southern blot analysis of ds-SBEIIa and ds-SBEIIb transgenic lines of barley. A. Barley ds-SBEIIa positive transgenes as shown by Southern blot hybridization. The expected band size is 1836 bp. B. Barley ds-SBEIIb positive transgenes as shown by Southern. The expected band size is 1907 bp. GP is Golden Promise (negative control).

[0041]FIG. 8. Western blot analysis of ds-SBEIIa and ds-SBEIIb transgenic lines of barley. Ten T1 seeds (seeds from T0 plants) of lines IIb 4.3 and IIb4.4 were analysed for SBEIIb expression by Western blot analysis using non-denaturing PAGE and an SBEIIb specific antibody. Lane 1 (+) is for the positive control, variety Glacier.

[0042]FIG. 9. Western blot analysis of ds-SBEIIa and ds-SBEIIb transgenic lines of barley. T1 seeds (seeds from T0 plants) of line IIa 4.1 were analysed for A. SBEIIa or B. SBEIIb expression by Western blot analysis using non-denaturing PAGE and SBEIIa or SBEIIb specific antibodies. The lanes on both the gels represent the same seeds. Lane 1 (+) in each panel is for the positive control, variety Glacier.

[0043]FIG. 10 Western blot analysis of ds-SBEIIa and ds-SBEIIb transgenic lines of barley. T1 seeds (seeds from T0 plants) of line IIb 4.1 were analysed for A. SBEIIb or B. SBEIIa expression by Western blot analysis using non-denaturing PAGE and SBEIIb or SBEIIa specific antibodies. The lanes on both the gels represent the same seeds. The last lane (+) in each panel is for the positive control, variety Glacier.

[0044]FIG. 11. Starch granule morphology of ds-SBEIIa transgenic barley. Starch granules from single seeds were visualized through light microscopy for both ds-SBEIIa and ds-SBEIIb transgenic seeds. FIG. 11A, seed with wild type SBEIIa expression (line IIa4.2.3). FIG. 11B, seed which lack SBEIIa expression (line IIa4.2.5). A significant morphological alteration was observed in starch from seeds lacking SBEIIa but not for SBEIIb.

[0045]FIG. 12. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of starch granules. A. wild-type starch granules (line IIa 4.2.3), B. and C. from a ds-SBEIIa transgenic endosperm (line IIa 4.2.5). Starch granules from ds-SBEIIb (SBEIIb inactivated) seed did not appear to be morphologically altered compared to wild-type

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0046] Alteration of SBEIIa in Barley

[0047] The invention is based on the finding that a reduction in SBEIIa activity in barley endosperm results in modified starch production, particularly high amylose accumulation in the barley grain. This unexpected result is in contrast to the findings in maize and rice where mutation in SBEIIa did not alter the amylopectin profile (Blauth et al., 20001, Nakamura, 2000). Preferably, there is an alteration in one or more additional starch biosynthetic enzyme activities, and more preferably a reduction in SBEIIb as well as SBEIIa. Preferably also the grain of this barley plant is non-shrunken.

[0048] Method of Producing a Barley Plant

[0049] In an aspect, the invention provides a method of reducing starch branching enzyme IIa (SBEIIa) activity in the endosperm of barley. The reduction in activity may be by at least 40% or perhaps preferably by at least 50% compared to the level of activity in the endosperm of unmodified (control) barley, more preferably by at least 75%, and even more preferably by at least 90% or 95%. The method may comprise the alteration of the expression of the SBEIIa gene of barley, or it may comprise the mutation of the SBEIIa gene in barley, whereby the SBEIIa activity in endosperm is reduced.

[0050] The method may comprise the step of determining the activity of SBEIIa in barley endosperm, preferably by measuring the level of the protein, for example by immunodetection, or the level of its corresponding mRNA by methods well known in the art, such as Northern blot hybridization analysis or reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The method may further comprise the step of selecting or screening for a barley plant or grain having reduced SBEIIa activity in its endosperm. The selection step may be based on the reduced level of the SBEIIa activity or protein, or it may be based on the phenotype of the grain of the barley plant such as increased amylose content or decreased amylopectin content or a visual phenotype, for example shrunken grain.

[0051] SBE activity may be measured by enzyme assay, for example by the phosphorylase stimulation assay (Boyer and Preiss, 1978). This assay measures the stimulation by SBE of the incorporation of glucose 1-phosphate into methanol-insoluble polymer (α-D-glucan) by phosphorylase a. SBE activity can be measured by the iodine stain assay, which measures the decrease in the absorbance of a glucan-polyiodine complex resulting from branching of glucan polymers. SBE activity can also be assayed by the branch linkage assay which measures the generation of reducing ends from reduced amylose as substrate, following isoamylase digestion (Takeda et al., 1993a). Preferably, the activity is measured in the absence of SBEI or SBEIIb activity. Isoforms of SBE show different substrate specificities, for example SBEI exhibits higher activity in branching amylose, while SBEIIa and SBEIIb show higher rates of branching with an amylopectin substrate. The isoforms may also be distinguished on the basis of the length of the glucan chain that is transferred.

[0052] In a further aspect, the invention provides a method of reducing the activity of multiple starch biosynthesis enzymatic activities in barley endosperm, wherein one of the activities is SBEIIa. Preferably, the activities of both SBEIIa and SBEIIb are reduced, and even more preferably SBEI activity is also reduced. Other starch biosynthesis enzymatic activities that may be reduced in combination with SBEIIa are: SSI, SSII, SSIII. Starch debranching enzymes may also be altered, for example the activity of isoamylase or pullulanase. In a further embodiment, the activities of starch biosynthesis enzymatic activities may be altered in the plant in tissues other than endosperm, for example the activity of SBEI or SBEII may be increased in leaves to compensate for some loss of activity caused by a transgene encoding an SBEIIa-inhibitory molecule intended primarily for expression in the endosperm. Alternatively, starch synthesis may be further improved by the overexpression of one or more starch biosynthetic enzymes in combination with a reduction in SBEIIa. Genes encoding such enzymes may be from any of a variety of sources, for example from bacterial or other sources other than barley, and may be modified to alter the catalytic properties, for example alteration of the temperature dependence of the enzymes (WO94/09144).

[0053] In a further aspect, the invention provides a method of increasing the level of amylose (as a percentage of starch) in barley grain, comprising the step of reducing the activity of SBEIIa in barley endosperm. The amylose content is preferably at least 50%, more preferably at least 60% and even more preferably at least 65, 75% or 70%. In further preferred embodiments of the invention, the method provides for amylose contents of at least 80% or 90%, as exemplified herein.

[0054] The high amylose phenotype may be achieved by partial or full disruption to the expression of the SBEIIa gene, or the SBEIIa and SBEIIb genes. The extent to which the gene is inhibited will in some degree determine the characteristics of the starch made in the barley grain. Any of a range of gel electrophoresis techniques carried out on the proteins extracted from the modified barley endosperm will reveal the nature and extent of modification to the SBEIIa and/or SBEIIb activity. Modification may occur as a reduction in SBEIIa and/or SBEIIb activity, complete abolition of enzyme activity, or an alteration in the distribution of the SBEIIb or other enzymes within the endosperm. To carry out these tests, starch may be extracted from the barley endosperm and the proteins therein analyzed, for example as outlined in Rahman et al, 1995. Techniques well known in the art such as SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting are carried out on the soluble and the starch granule fractions and identify the plants or grain where modifications have occurred to the SBEIIa and/or SBEIIb enzymes.

[0055] Barley Plants

[0056] In a further aspect, the invention provides a barley (Hordeum vulgare) plant with a reduced level of SBEIIa activity in the endosperm during at least some of the development of the grain, the barley plant being capable of bearing grain having starch comprising a high relative amylose content. Preferably, the level of SBEIIa is reduced in the endosperm by at least 50%, more preferably by at least 75% and most preferably by at least 90% or 95% compared to the wild-type. The term “wild-type” has its normal meaning in the field of genetics and includes barley cultivars or genotypes which are not modified as taught herein.

[0057] The invention also provides progeny plants and grain which have the desired characteristics of the parent.

[0058] The invention also encompasses barley plants that have altered SBEIIb or other starch biosynthetic enzyme activities in addition to reduced SBEIIa activity. Plants having reduced SBEIIa and SBEIIb activities may be produced by crossing a plant reduced for SBEIIa with a plant reduced for SBEIIb, or by introducing a transgene encoding a molecule that inhibits expression of both SBEIIa and SBEIIb genes. The invention also encompasses the mutation(s) in other genetic backgrounds. The original altered (mutant) plants may be crossed with plants containing a more desirable genetic background. After the initial crossing, a suitable number of backcrosses may be carried out to remove the less desirable background. The desired genetic background may include a suitable combination of genes providing commercial yield and other characteristics such as agronomic performance, abiotic-stress resistance or hull-less grain. The genetic background might also include other altered starch biosynthesis or modification genes, for example the amylose extender phenotype or the amo1 mutation in High Amylose Glacier barley (gene unknown), the waxy mutation (found for example in the Waxiro variety), the mutant gene in the high amylose variety MK6827 (available from the USDA ARS National Small Grain Germplasm Research Facility Aberdeen, Id. 831290 USA) or the high amylose varieties M292 and M342 (mutation in the SSIIa gene) or modifier genes. Additionally it may be desirable to combine other double and triple mutations with combinations of the above lines and in crosses with other barley lines that have a shrunken endosperm where the causal gene is not known.

[0059] Grain

[0060] The invention also provides barley grain comprising an altered starch compared to wild-type. The altered starch is at least partly a consequence of reduced SBEIIa activity during development of endosperm of the barley grain. The grain comprises increased amylose levels as a percentage of total starch and a reduced amylopectin content compared to wild-type, which has approximately 25% amylose and 75% amylopectin. Preferably, both SBEIIa and SBEIIb activities are reduced during development of the endosperm. Even more preferably, the activity of SBEI is also reduced. The amylose levels, as measured by methods well understood in the art, are preferable at least 50% of the total starch, more preferably at least 60% and even more preferably at least 65%, 70%, 75%, 80% or 90%. Increased amylose levels may be evidenced by abnormal starch granule morphology or loss of birefringence of the granules when observed under a light microscope or other methods. Preferably the amylose level is measured by an iodometric method, which may be spectrophotometric (for example, Morrison and Laignelet, 1983) or by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC, for example, Batey and Curtin, 1996).

[0061] The grain of the barley plant may have an elevated level of β glucan, which may be associated with increased carbon flow into this polymer rather than into amylopectin synthesis. Alternatively, the grain may have normal levels of β glucan, for example in the range 3.0-6.0% of the mature grain weight. More preferably, the grain comprises both elevated amylose and normal levels of β glucan. Such a combination is unexpected, based on the composition of starch in grain from SSIIa mutant barley (WO 02/37955). The grain may comprise starch that has altered gelatinisation temperatures and/or altered swelling characteristics during and following gelatinisation. The grain also, preferably, has a non-shrunken phenotype.

[0062] The invention also provides flour or meal produced from the grain. These may be unprocessed or processed, for example by fractionation or bleaching. The invention further provides barley grain useful for food production obtained from a barley plant having an altered level of a SBEIIa activity in the endosperm, starch of said grain having a high amylose content and a reduced amylopectin content. Additionally the invention encompasses grain that has been processed in other ways, so that the grain may have been milled, ground, pearled, kibbled or cracked.

[0063] Starch

[0064] In another aspect, the invention provides starch obtained from the grain of the barley plant as described above, the plant having a reduced level of SBEIIa activity in the endosperm, the starch having a high amylose content and a reduced amylopectin content. Preferably both SBEIIa and SBEIIb activities are reduced, and more preferably the activity of SBEI is also reduced. In another aspect, the invention provides starch obtained from the grain of the barley plant, comprising at least 50% amylose, preferably at least 60% amylose, and even more preferably at least 65%, 70%, 75%, 80% or 90% amylose. Purified starch may be obtained from grain by a milling process, for example a wet milling process, which involves the separation of the starch from protein, oil and fibre. The initial product of the milling process is a mixture or composition of starch granules, and the invention therefore encompasses such granules. The starch of the granules comprises at least 50%, preferably 70%, 75% or 80% amylose.

[0065] The starch may comprise an elevated level of resistant starch, with an altered structure indicated by specific physical characteristics including one or more of the group consisting of physical inaccessibility to digestive enzymes which may be by reason of having a high β-glucan content, altered starch granule morphology, the presence of appreciable starch associated lipid, altered crystallinity, and altered amylopectin chain length distribution. The high amylose content also contributes to the level of resistant starch.

[0066] The invention also provides starch from grain of the exemplified barley plant comprising increased amounts of dietary fibre, preferably in combination with the elevated level of resistant starch. This increase is also at least in part a result of the high relative level of amylose.

[0067] Methods of reducing gene activity. Transgenes

[0068] The activity of SBEIIa and optionally other starch biosynthesis or modification genes are preferably altered by introducing a genetic variation into the plant which might be by means of the introduction of a transgene into the barley plant. A “genetic variation” means any alteration in the genome which, in this context, affects the activity of SBEIIa, and includes mutations such as point mutations, substitutions, inversions, translocations and preferably deletions, as well as introduction of transgenes. A “transgene” as referred to herein has the normal meaning in the art of biotechnology and includes a genetic sequence which has been produced or altered by recombinant DNA or RNA technology and which has been introduced into the organism or cell of interest. The transgene may include genetic sequence derived from the organism or cell, for example an antisense sequence. The transgene typically includes an exogenous nucleic acid which is not derived from said organism or cell. “Transgenic” refers to the organism or cell containing a transgene. “Non-transgenic” refers to the absence of any transgene in the genome. A transgene is preferably integrated into the genome of the organism or cell, for stable inheritance.

[0069] The method of reducing SBEIIa activity may comprise the step of introducing a transgene into a regenerable cell of barley and regenerating a transgenic barley plant from the transformed cell. The branching enzymes involved in synthesis of amylopectin include SBEI, SBEIIa and SBEIIb and the invention encompasses a reduced expression of SBEIIa alone or in combination with alteration of SBEIIB or SBEI expression. Therefore, the transgene(s) may inactivate more than one of these genes. Moreover, the inactivation of SBEIIb and/or SBEI may be direct, in that the transgene (e.g. encoding duplex RNA, antisense, or ribozyme RNA, see below) directly targets the SBEIIb or SBEI gene expression, or it may indirectly result in the alteration in the expression of SBEIIB or SBEI. For example, the transgene RNA may target only the SBEIIa gene/RNA in terms of sequence identity or basepairing but also result in reduction of SBEIIb or SBEI by altering protein stability or distribution. Additionally forms of the present invention reside in the combination of an altered activity of SBEIIa and an alteration of one or more other amylopectin synthesis enzymes, which enzymes may include SSI, SSII, SSIII, and debranching enzymes such as isoamylase or pullulanase. Expression of any or all of these may be altered by introduction of a transgene.

[0070] Several DNA sequences are known for amylopectin synthesis genes in barley, any of which can be the basis for designing transgenes for inactivation of the genes in barley. These include SBEIIa (GenBank accession numbers AF064562 and AF064560), SBEIIb (GenBank accession numbers AF064563 and AF064561). Homologs of the SBEI gene of barley can be isolated by utilising sequences based on DNA sequences from other grains, for example by techniques such as those set out in WO99/14314 to Li et al., for Triticum. The Triticum tauschii sequence for SBEI, which is highly homologous to the wheat D genome SBEI gene and has a high degree of similarity to the barley gene, can be found in published Patent specification WO 99/14314 or referenced cited therein, which document is incorporated herein by reference. The sequence for SBEI of wheat can be accessed in the GenBank database under accession number AF076679. Homologues of other amylopectin synthesising genes from wheat or other closely related species can also be used to modify gene expression levels in barley. Such genes or fragments thereof can be obtained by methods well known in the art, including PCR amplification or hybridization to labeled probes.

[0071] “Stringent hybridization conditions” as used herein means that hybridization will generally occur if there is at least 90% and preferably at least 95% sequence identity between the probe and the target sequence. Examples of stringent hybridization conditions are overnight incubation in a solution comprising 50% fomamide, 5×SSC (1×SSC=150 mM NaCl, 15 mM trisodium citrate), 50 mM sodium phosphate (pH 7.6), 5× Denhardt's solution, 10% dextran sulfate, and 20 μg/ml denatured sheared carrier DNA such as salmon sperm DNA, followed by washing the hybridiazation support in 0.1×SSC at approximately 65° C. Other hybridization and wash conditions are well known and are exemplified in Sambrook et al, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Second Edition, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1989), particularly chapter 11.

[0072] The region(s) of the homologues used in preparing the transgene construct should have at least 85% identity to the corresponding barley gene, preferably at least 90% and even more preferably 95-100% identity in the appropriate region. It is also preferred that the transgene specifically target the amylopectin synthesis genes expressed in the endosperm of barley and have less or minimal effect on amylopectin synthesis elsewhere in the plant. This may be achieved by use of suitable regulatory sequences such as endosperm-specific promoters in the transgene.

[0073] Antisense

[0074] Known genetic engineering or transgenic approaches to altering, in particular specifically reducing, gene activity in plants are well known in the art. These methods of introducing genetic variation into the barley plant include the expression of a suitable antisense molecule that is complementary to the RNA of the target gene and can hybridize with it. Antisense molecules are thought to interfere with the translation or processing or stability of the mRNA of the target gene, thereby inactivating its expression. Methods of devising antisense sequences are well known in the art and examples of these are can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 5,190,131, European patent specification 0467349-A1, European patent specification 0223399-A1 and European patent specification 0240208, which are incorporated herein by reference. The use of antisense techniques in plants has been reviewed by Bourque (1995) and Senior (1998). Bourque lists a large number of examples of how antisense sequences have been utilized in plant systems as a method of gene inactivation. She also states that attaining 100% inhibition of any enzyme activity may not be necessary as partial inhibition will more than likely result in measurable change in the system. Senior (1998) states that antisense methods are now a very well established technique for manipulating gene expression.

[0075] Antisense molecules for barley SBEIIa, SBEIIb, SBEI or other amylopectin biosynthesis genes can be based on the barley mRNA sequences or based on homologies with DNA or mRNA sequences derived from other species, for example wheat. These antisense sequences may correspond to the structural genes or for sequences that effect control over the gene expression or splicing event. For example, the antisense sequence may correspond to the targeted coding region of the barley SBEIIa or other gene, or the 5′-untranslated region (UTR) or the 3′-UTR or combination of these. It may be complementary in part to intron sequences, which may be spliced out during or after transcription, preferably only to exon sequences of the target gene. In view of the generally greater divergence of the UTRs, targeting these regions provides greater specificity of gene inhibition. The length of the antisense sequence should be at least 19 contiguous nucleotides, preferably at least 50 nucleotides, and more preferably at least 100, 200, 500 or 1000 nucleotides. The full-length sequence complementary to the entire gene transcript may be used. The length is most preferably 100-2000 nucleotides. The degree of homology of the antisense sequence to the targeted transcript should be at least 85%, preferably at least 90% and more preferably 95-100%. The antisense RNA molecule may of course comprise unrelated sequences which may function to stabilize the molecule.

[0076] Cosuppression

[0077] Another molecular biological approach that may be used is co-suppression. The mechanism of co-suppression is not well understood but is thought to involve post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) and in that regard may be very similar to many examples of antisense suppression. It involves introducing an extra copy of a gene or a fragment thereof into a plant in the sense orientation with respect to a promoter for its expression. The size of the sense fragment, its correspondence to target gene regions, and its degree of homology to the target gene are as for the antisense sequences described above. In some instances the additional copy of the gene sequence interferes with the expression of the target plant gene. Reference is made to Patent specification WO 97/20936 and European patent specification 0465572 for methods of implementing co-suppression approaches.

[0078] Double Stranded RNA-Mediated Gene Silencing

[0079] A further method that might be employed to introduce genetic variation into the barley plant is duplex or double stranded RNA mediated gene silencing. This method also involves PTGS. In this method a DNA is introduced that directs the synthesis of an at least partly double stranded RNA product(s). The DNA therefore comprises both sense and antisense sequences that, when transcribed into RNA, can hybridize to form the double-stranded RNA region. In a preferred embodiment, the sense and antisense sequences are separated by a spacer region that comprises an intron which, when transcribed into RNA, is spliced out. This arrangement has been shown to result in a higher efficiency of gene silencing. The double-stranded region may comprise one or two RNA molecules, transcribed from either one DNA region or two. The presence of the double stranded molecule triggers a response from an endogenous plant system that destroys both the double stranded RNA and also the homologous RNA transcript from the target plant gene, efficiently reducing or eliminating the activity of the target gene. Reference is made to Australian Patent specification 99/292514-A and Patent specification WO 99/53050 for methods of implementing this technique. The length of the sense and antisense sequences that hybridise should each be at least 19 contiguous nucleotides, preferably at least 50 nucleotides, and more preferably at least 100, 200, 500 or 1000 nucleotides. The full-length sequence corresponding to the entire gene transcript may be used. The lengths are most preferably 100-2000 nucleotides. The degree of homology of the sense and antisense sequences to the targeted transcript should be at least 85%, preferably at least 90% and more preferably 95-100%. The RNA molecule may of course comprise unrelated sequences which may function to stabilize the molecule.

[0080] Ribozymes

[0081] Ribozymes may be used to intorduce the genetic variation responsible for inactivation of the desired gene expression in barley. Ribozymes are RNA molecules with enzymatic or catalytic function that can cleave other RNA molecules at specific sites defined by one or often two hybridizing sequences. The cleavage of the RNA inactivates the expression of the target gene. The ribozymes may also act as an antisense molecule, which may contribute to the gene inactivation. The ribozymes contain one or more catalytic domains, preferably of the hammerhead or hairpin type, between the hybridizing sequences. Other ribozyme motifs may be used including RNAseP, Group I or II introns, and hepatitis delta virus types. Reference is made to European patent specification 0321201 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,221,661. The use of ribozymes to inactivate genes in transgenic plants has been demonstrated, for example by Wegener et al (1994).

[0082] Genetic Constructs/Vectors

[0083] The invention also provides isolated nucleic acid molecules including RNA and preferably DNA which encode the gene-inhibiting molecule. Preferably, the nucleic acid molecules encode the antisense, sense (co-suppression), double-stranded RNA or ribozyme molecules targeting the barley SBEIIa gene sequence and effective in inactivating its expression in endosperm of barley grain. The invention also provides genetic constructs comprising the isolated nucleic acid molecule, comprising one or more regulatory elements such as promoters, enhancers and transcription termination or polyadenylation sequences. Such elements are well known in the art. The genetic constructs may also comprise intron sequences which aid expression of the transgene in plants, particularly in monocotyledonous plants such as barley. The term “intron” is used in its normal sense as meaning a genetic segment that is transcribed but does not encode protein and which is spliced out of an RNA before translation. Introns may be incorporated in a 5′-UTR or a coding region if the transgene encodes a translated product, or anywhere in the transcribed region if it does not.

[0084] The invention further provides vectors, for example plasmid vectors, comprising the genetic constructs. The term “vector” includes an expression vector, being capable of in vitro or in vivo expression, and a transformation vector, capable of being transferred from one cell or organism to another. The vectors comprise sequences that provide for replication in cells, for example in prokaryotic cells such as E. coli or Agrobacterium. Preferably, the vector is a binary vector comprising a T-DNA sequence, defined by at least one T-DNA border sequence, that can be introduced into barley cells. The invention further provides cells comprising the vectors, for example Agrobacterium or barley cells which may be regenerable cells such as the cells of the scutellum of immature embryos. Alternatively, the cells may be transformed barley cells comprising the transgene.

[0085] Promoters/Terminators

[0086] The transgene or other genetic construct of the invention may include a transcriptional initiation region (promoter) which may provide for regulated or constitutive expression in the endosperm of barley. The promoter may be tissue specific, conferring expression selectively or exclusively in the endosperm. The promoter may be selected from either endosperm-specific (such as High Molecular Weight Glutenin promoter, the wheat SSI promoter, wheat SBEII promoter, wheat GBSS promoter) or promoters not specific for the endosperm (such as ubiquitin promoter or CaMV35S or enhanced 35S promoters). The promoter may be modulated by factors such as temperature, light or stress. Ordinarily, the promoter would be provided 5′ of the genetic sequence to be expressed. The construct may also contain other elements that enhance transcription such as the nos 3′ or the ocs 3′ polyadenylation regions or transcription terminators. The regions of DNA illustrated will be incorporated into vectors containing suitable selectable marker gene sequences and other elements, or into vectors that are co-transformed with vectors containing these sequences.

[0087] Transformation Methods for Barley

[0088] Methods for transformation of monocotyledonous plants such as barley for introducing genetic variation into the plant by introduction of an exogenous nucleic acid and for regeneration of plants from protoplasts or immature plant embryos are well known in the art, see for example, Wan and Lemaux (1994), Tingay et al (1997), Canadian Patent Application 2092588 by Nehra, Australian Patent Application No 61781/94 by National Research Council of Canada, Australian Patent No 667939 by Japan Tobacco Inc., International Patent Application PCT/US97/10621 by Monsanto Company, U.S. Pat. No. 5,589,617, and other methods are set out in Patent specification WO99/14314. Vectors carrying the desired nucleotide sequence or genetic construct and a selectable marker may be introduced into regenerable barley cells of tissue cultured plants or explants, or suitable plant systems such as protoplasts. The selectable marker gene may provide antibiotic or herbicide resistance to the barley cells, or allow the utilization of substrates such as mannose. The selectable marker preferably confers hygromycin resistance to the barley cells. The regenerable barley cells are preferably from the scutellum of immature embryos, mature embryos, callus derived from these, or the meristematic tissue.

[0089] The transformed plant may contain a selectable marker gene, or such gene may be removed during or after regeneration, for example by excision of the selectable marker gene out of the genome or by segregation of the selectable marker gene away from the SBEIIa-inhibiting transgene.

[0090] Plants where the transgene or mutation has been integrated into a chromosome can be screened for by, for example, using a suitable nucleic acid probe specific for the transgene or phenotypic observation. Any of several methods may be employed to determine the presence of a transformed plant. For example, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) may be used to amplify sequences that are unique to the transformed plant, with detection of the amplified products by gel electrophoresis or other methods. DNA may be extracted from the plants using conventional methods and the PCR reaction carried out using primers that will distinguish the transformed and non-transformed plants. For example, primers may be designed that will amplify a region of DNA from the transformation vector reading into the construct and the reverse primer designed from the gene of interest. These primers will only amplify a fragment if the plant has been successfully transformed. An alternative method to confirm a positive transformant is by Southern blot hybridization, well known in the art. Plants which are transformed or mutant may also be identified i.e. distinguished from non-transformed or wild-type plants by their phenotype, for example conferred by the presence of a selectable marker gene, or the presence of a particular protein by immunological methods, or by the absence of a protein, for example that absence of the SBEIIa protein in the endosperm as detected by ELISA assay. An indication used in screening such plants might also be by observation of the phenotypic traits of the grain, for example by visual inspection or measurement of shrunken grain, or testing for elevated amylose content, or checking microscopically for the presence of birefringence.

[0091] Mutation

[0092] Introduction of the genetic variation leading to reduced activity of the SBEIIa enzyme or other enzyme in the barley endosperm may also be achieved by the appropriate mutations within the respective gene or regulatory sequences of the gene. The extent to which the gene is inhibited will to some degree determine the characteristics of the starch made. The mutations may be truncation or null mutants and these are known to have a significant impact on the nature of the starch, however an altered amylopectin structure will also result from a leaky mutant that sufficiently reduces amylopectin synthesis enzyme activity to provide the characteristic of interest in the starch or grain of barley. Other chromosomal rearrangements may also be effective and these might include deletions, inversions, duplication or point mutations.

[0093] Mutagenesis can be achieved by chemical or radiation means, for example EMS or sodium azide (Zwar and Chandler, 1995) treatment of seed, or gamma irradiation. Isolation of mutants may be achieved by screening mutagenised plants or seed. For example, a mutagenized population of barley may be screened for high amylose content in the grain and/or longer than normal amylopectin chain length distribution, or loss of the SBEIIa protein by ELISA, or for altered grain morphology (Green et al., 1997). Screening is preferably done in a barley genotype which already lacks one of the SBE. activities, for example in a SBEIIb-negative background. Such mutations may then be introduced into desirable genetic backgrounds by crossing the mutant with a plant of the desired genetic background and performing a suitable number of backcrosses to cross out the originally undesired parent background.

[0094] Mutations in the genes encoding the SBEIIa or other enzymes involved in amylopectin synthesis will generally cause increased relative amylose content. The amount of amylose per individual grain may be increased as a consequence of diverted carbon flow from amylopectin to amylose, or it may be decreased if there is a significant decrease in starch production per grain. In either case, the relative level of amylose as a percentage of starch increases.

[0095] Suitable for Food Production

[0096] In another aspect, the invention provides barley that is useful for food production, the grain being obtained from a barley plant having a reduced level of SBEIIa activity in the endosperm of developing grain, starch of said grain having a relatively high amylose content and a reduced amylopectin content. The barley plant of the present invention is preferably one having grain that is useful for food production and in particular for commercial food production. Such food production might include the making of flour or other products that might be an ingredient in commercial food production.

[0097] The desired genetic background of the barley will include considerations of agronomic yield and other characteristics. Such characteristics might include whether it is desired to have a winter or spring type of barley, agronomic performance, disease resistance and abiotic stress resistance. In Australia one might want to cross into barley cultivars such as Sloop, Schooner, Chebec, Franklin, Arapiles, Tantangara, Galleon, Gairdner or Picola. The examples provided are specific for an Australian production region, and other varieties will be suited for other growing regions. It is preferred that the barley variety of the invention provide a yield not less than 80% of the corresponding wild-type variety in at least some growing regions, more preferably not less than 90% and even more preferably not less than 95%. The yield can readily be measured in controlled field trials. It is also preferred that the barley plants are hull-less or “naked”, because the presence of husks on barley grains introduces greater difficulty in processing the grain.

[0098] The starch content of the grain should be at least about 12% (w/w) or 15%, preferably at least 25%, more preferably at least 35% and even more preferably near to the wild-type levels of 45-50% (w/w). Lower starch contents than wild-type are likely a consequence of reduced amylopectin levels. The grain may still be useful for commercial food production because of the relatively high value of the high amylose products. Other desirable characteristics include the capacity to mill the grain. Whilst pearled barley may be produced from most forms of grain, certain configurations of grain are particularly resistant to milling. Another characteristic that might have an impact on commercial usefulness of grain is the colouration of the product produced from the grain. Where the husk or other portion of the grain exhibits significant colouration other than the normal this may limit its commercial applications to niche applications such as being a component of bread containing coloured whole or kibbled grains. Typically in barley the significant colouration is purple, and that may be a bright and strong colouration which is highly undesirable in most food products. Another aspect that might make a barley plant of higher value is the degree of starch extraction from the grain, the higher extraction rates being more useful. Grain shape is also another feature the can impact on the commercial usefulness of a plant, thus grain shape can have an impact on the ease or otherwise with which the grain can be milled. For example, the barley grain of the high amylose MK6827 plant has a very elongated grain morphology which makes it difficult to mill and process. A convenient measure of this elongate shape and associated usefulness is the ratio of the length of the grain to the thickness of the grain (L/T ratio). This ratio is often dictated by the nature of the starch. It is preferred that this ratio is less than 5.5, more preferably ranging from about 4 to about 5, and most preferably less than 3.5 on average.

[0099] A fuller grain maybe desirable in terms of achieving greater yields and certain benefits of the invention might be achieved, such as the production of starch with high levels of amylose, or in the alternative starch with altered chain length distributions. Thus the grain preferably has a non-shrunken phenotype. Other aspects of the invention may, however, be better achieved by a grain that is less filled. Thus the proportion of aleurone layer or germ to starch may be higher in less filled grain, thereby providing for a barley flour or other product that is higher in the beneficial constituents of the aleurone layer. The high aleurone layer product might thus be higher in certain vitamins such as folate, or it might be higher in certain minerals such as calcium, and that combined with higher resistant starch levels and/or higher β glucan levels might provide synergistic effects such as providing for enhanced uptake of minerals in the large bowel.

[0100] In order to maximise the amount of amylose, it may be desirable for the barley plant to also have other phenotypic characteristics in addition to a reduced activity of SBEIIa. The genetic background might therefore include additionally the amo1 mutation in AC38 (causal gene unknown) or the waxy mutation (found for example in the Waxiro variety). Additionally it might be desired to make double mutations in other barley mutants available with shrunken endosperms where the causal gene is not known.

[0101] Starch is readily isolated from barley grain using standard methods, for example the method of Schulman et al. (1991). On an industrial scale, wet or dry milling can be used. The starch obtained from the grain of barley plant of the invention has a high relative amylose content. Barley plants having at least 35-45% amylose in the starch are considered to be high amylose. The present invention however provides for barley with an amylose content that is greater than 50% (w/w), preferably at least 60%, and more preferably at least 70%, 75%, 80% or 90%.

[0102] It will be understood that the relative level of amylose referred to is in relation to total starch content, and thus the remainder of the starch might be predominantly of an intermediate type of starch or it might be predominantly amylopectin or a mixture of both.

[0103] β-Glucan

[0104] It is known that there is a wide variation in β glucan levels in barley in the range of about 4% to about 18% by weight of the barley, but more typically from 4% to about 8% (for example, Izydorcyk et al., 2000). Enhanced barley strains have been developed, for example, which have between about 15% and about 18% by weight β-glucan but has a waxy phenotype.

[0105] The levels of β glucan contemplated by this invention may depend on the genetic background in which the amylopectin synthesis enzyme activity, including SBEIIa, is reduced. The exemplified embodiment shows relatively normal β glucan synthesis, however other forms of the invention may contemplate an elevated relative level of β glucan. Thus the grain of the barley plant preferably has a β glucan content of between about 3 to 6% (w/w) of total non-hulled grain weight. Other forms of the invention may however exhibit β-glucan content of greater than 6% or higher, for example, 6-8%. Levels of β glucan in a waxy mutant has been measured as being as high as 15 to 18%, for example variety Prowashonupana, sold commercially under the name Sustagrain™, (ConAgra™ Specially Grain Products Company, Omaha, Neb. USA) and the present invention may contemplate levels as high, or higher, than that.

[0106] Gelatinisation Temperature

[0107] Gelatinisation is the collapse (disruption) of molecular order within the starch granule with concomitant and irreversible changes in properties such as granular swelling, crystallite melting, loss of birefringence, viscosity development and starch solubilisation. High amylose starch from ae (amylose extender) mutants of maize showed a higher gelatinisation temperature than normal maize (Fuwa et al., 1999, Krueger et al., 1987). On the other hand, starch from barley sex6 mutants that lack starch synthase Ia activity had lower gelatinisation temperatures and the enthalpy for the gelatinisation peak was reduced when compared to that from control plants (Morell et al., 2003).

[0108] In another aspect of the invention, the starch may have an altered gelatinisation temperature as measured by differential scanning calorimetry. This may be either increased or reduced compared to starch from wild-type plants. The altered gelatinisation temperature may be in addition to the relatively high amylose content. Where the gelatinisation temperature is reduced, it may be reduced when compared to starch produced by other barley varieties with elevated amylose content, or it may be reduced when compared with starch produced from barley with normal levels of amylose. Alternative forms of the invention contemplate gelatinisation temperatures that are unaltered or are raised relative to wild-type barley starch. The gelatinisation temperature of wild-type barley starch is typically about 56° C. for the temperature of the first peak as measured by differential scanning calorimetry.

[0109] Swelling Volume

[0110] The starch may also be characterized by its swelling rate in heated excess water compared to wild-type starch. Swelling volume is typically measured by mixing either a starch or flour with excess water and heating to elevated temperatures, typically greater than 90° C. The sample is then collected by centrifugation and the swelling volume is expressed as the mass of the sedimented material divided by the dry weight of the sample. A low swelling characteristic is useful where it is desired to increase the starch content of a food preparation, in particular a hydrated food preparation.

[0111] Crystallinity

[0112] The starch structure of the barley of selected forms of the present invention may also differ in that the degree of crystallinity is reduced compared to normal starch isolated from barley. The reduced crystallinity of a starch is also thought to be associated with enhance organoleptic properties and contributes to a smoother mouth feel. Thus the starch may additionally exhibit reduced crystallinity resulting from reduced levels of activity of one or more amylopectin synthesis enzymes Crystallinity is typically investigated by X-ray crystallography.

[0113] Distribution of Amylopectin Chain Lengths

[0114] One measurement of an altered amylopectin structure is the distribution of chain lengths, or the degree of polymerization, of the starch. The chain length distribution may be determined by using fluorophore-assisted carbohydrate electrophoresis (FACE) following isoamylase de-branching. The amylopectin of the starch of the invention may have a distribution of chain length in the range from 5 to 60 that is greater than the distribution of starch from wild-type plants upon debranching. Starch with longer chain lengths will also have a commensurate decrease in frequency of branching. Thus the starch may also have a distribution of longer amylopectin chain lengths in the amylopectin still present.

[0115] Food Characteristics

[0116] Starch is the major source of carbohydrate in the human diet, and the grain of the invention and products derived from it can be used to prepare food. The food may be consumed by man or animals, for example in livestock production or in pet-food. The grain derived from the altered barley plant can readily be used in food processing procedures, and therefore the invention includes milled, ground, kibbled, pearled or rolled grain or products obtained from the processed or whole grain of the barley plant referred to above, including flour. These products may be then used in various food products, for example farinaceous products such as breads, cakes, biscuits and the like, or food additives such as thickeners or binding agents, or to make malted or other barley drinks, noodles and quick soups. The grain or products derived from the grain of the invention are particularly desired in breakfast cereals. The high amylose starches of the invention can also be used to form high strength gels which are useful in the confectionery industry, or allow lower molding and curing times. They may also be used as a coating, for example to reduce oil absorption in deep-fried potato or other foods.

[0117] Dietary Fibre

[0118] Dietary fibre, in this specification, is the carbohydrate and carbohydrate digestion products that are not absorbed in the small intestine of healthy humans but enter the large bowel. This includes resistant starch, β-glucan and other soluble and insoluble carbohydrate polymers. It is intended to comprise that portion of carbohydrates that are fermentable, at least partially, in the large bowel by the resident microflora.

[0119] The starch of the invention preferably contains relatively high levels of dietary fibre, more particularly amylose and optionally an elevated level of β-glucan. The dietary fibre content of the grain of the present invention may or may not result solely from the increased relative endospermal amylose content. The β-glucan may be present at elevated levels and as such may contribute significantly to the dietary fibre level.

[0120] Aspects of this invention might also arise from the combination of aleurone layer and germ in combination with high levels of dietary fibre. Specifically, this may arise where higher relative levels of aleurone or germ are present in the grain. Firstly, barley has a significantly higher aleurone layer than other commercial grains, being a result of having a three cell aleurone layer. Secondly, where the barley grain is slightly shrunken the endosperm is present in reduced amounts and the aleurone layer and the germ are present in relatively elevated amounts. Thus the barley has a relatively high level of certain beneficial elements or vitamins in combination with elevated resistant, such elements include divalent cations such as bioavailable Ca⁺⁺ and vitamins such as folate or antioxidant such as tocopherols and tocotrienols. Calcium is required for growth and deposition of bone and other calcified tissue and in lowering the risk of osteoporosis later in life. Folic acid is found to be protective against neural tube defects when consumed periconceptually and decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease, thereby enhancing the effects of the combination of resistant starch and β-glucan. Folic acid also is thought to have an effect of lowering the risk of certain cancers. Tocopherol and tocotrienols carry the benefits of antioxidants and are believed to lower the risk of cancer and heart disease, and also have the effect of reducing the undesirable effects of oxidation of components of a food such as fatty acids which can result in rancidity. One specific form of milled product might be one where the aleurone layer is included in the milled product. Particular milling process might be undertaken to enhance the amount of aleurone layer in the milled product. Such a method is referred to in Fenech et al. (1999). Thus any product derived from grain milled or otherwise processed to include aleurone layer and germ will have the additional nutritional benefits, without the requirement of adding these elements from separate sources.

[0121] Resistant Starch

[0122] Resistant starch is defined as the sum of starch and products of starch digestion not absorbed in the small intestine of healthy humans but entering into the large bowel. Thus, resistant starch excludes products digested and absorbed in the small intestine. Resistant starches include physically inaccessible starch (RS1 form), resistant granules (RS2), retrograded starches (RS3), and chemically modified starches (RS4).

[0123] The altered starch structure and in particular the high amylose levels of the starch of the invention give rise to an increase in resistant starch when consumed in food. Resistant starch may also increase if β-glucan is present at elevated levels, which is likely to exert protective effects by association of the β glucan with the starch granule. The starch may be in an RS1 form, being somewhat inaccessible to digestion. Starch-lipid association as measured by V-complex crystallinity is also likely to contribute to the level of resistant starch. In this case the resistance is likely to arise because of the physically inaccessible of the starch by virtue of the presence of the lipid and accordingly this might be regarded as an RS1 starch. The starch of the exemplified barley plant may be resistant to digestion by reason of the structure of the starch granule and accordingly may have RS2 starch. Each of these characteristics might be present separately or in combination.

[0124] It will be understood that one benefit of the present invention is that it provides for products that are of particular nutritional benefit, and moreover it does so without the need to modify the starch or other constituents of the barley grain. However it may be desired to make modifications to the starch, β-glucan or other constituent of the grain, and the invention encompasses such a modified constituent. Methods of modification are well known and include the extraction of the starch or β-glucan or other constituent by conventional methods and modification of the starches to increase the resistant form. The starch or β-glucan may be modified by treatment with heat and/or moisture, physically (for example ball milling), enzymatically (using for example α- or β-amylase, pullalanase or the like), chemical hydrolysis (wet or dry using liquid or gaseous reagents), oxidation, cross bonding with difunctional reagents (for example sodium trimetaphosphate, phosphorous oxychloride), or carboxyme thylation.

[0125] Glycemic Index

[0126] Glycaemic Index (GI) is a comparison of the effect of a test food with the effect of white bread or glucose on excursions in blood glucose concentration. The Glycaemic Index is a measure of the likely effect of the food concerned on post prandial serum glucose concentration and demand for insulin for blood glucose homeostasis. One important product provided by the invention as a result of the high amylose and optionally high β-glucan content is a low calorific product with a reduced glycaemic index. A low calorific product might be based on inclusion of flour produced from milled barley grain. It might be desired, however, to first pearl the grain removing perhaps 10% or 20% by weight of the grain, thereby removing the aleurone layer and at the greater reduction removing also the germ. The effect of the pearling step is to reduce the lipid content and therefore reducing the calorific value of the food. Such foods will have the effect of being filling, enhancing bowel health, reducing the post-prandial serum glucose and lipid concentration as well as providing for a low calorific food product. Use of the pearled product would result in a reduction in nutritional benefits provided by the aleurone layer and the germ. The flour produced from the pearled product is likely to have an enhanced appearance because a product made in that way tends to be whiter.

[0127] Non-Food Applications

[0128] The present invention provides modified or improved starches having elevated levels of amylose or reduced levels of amylopectin whose properties satisfy any of various industrial requirements. Starch is widely used in non-food industries, including the paper, textile, corrugating and adhesive industries (Young, 1984). The physical properties of unmodified starch limits its usefulness in some applications and often imposes a requirement for chemical modification that can be expensive or have other disadvantages.

[0129] The invention provides starch for which less post-harvest modification may be required, in particular due to the reduced amylopectin content in combination with other physical properties. For example, the pasting temperature, resistance to shearing stresses, film strength and/or water resistance of starches and product made from the grain of this invention may be altered. The starch may also be used to prepare a biodegradable loose-fill packing material that can be used as a replacement for polystyrene.

[0130] It will be understood that whilst various indications have been given as to aspects of the present invention, the invention may reside in combinations of two or more aspects of the present invention.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Materials and Methods

[0131] Callus Inducing Medium

[0132] BCI-DM medium containing Dicamba (2.5 mg/l) was used for callus induction from barley embryo. Composition for one litre of medium: MS salt Macro (10x stock): 100 ml MS micro (100x stock): 10 ml Iron (200x stock): 5 ml EDTA (200x stock): 5 ml Maltose: 15.0 g Thiamine-HCl (1 mg/ml): 1 ml Myo-inositol: 250 mg Casein hydrolysate: 1 g Dicamba (1 mg/ml): 2.5 ml Proline: 345 mg

[0133] The pH was adjusted to 5.8 and 3.5 g/l of Phytagel added. After autoclaving the medium, 150 mg/l of Timentin and 50 mg/l of Hygromycin were added. Barley regeneration medium Barley calli are regenerated in FHG medium containing BAP (1 mg/l) FHG-I Macro (10x stock): 100 ml FHG-II Micro (100x stock): 10 ml Thiamine-HCl (1 mg/ml): 1 ml Iron (200x stock): 5 ml EDTA (200x stock): 5 ml BAP (1 mg/ml): 1 ml Inositol: 100 mg Glutamine: 730 mg Maltose: 62 g

[0134] The pH was adjusted to 5.8 and then 3.5 g/l of phytagel added. After autoclaving the medium, 150 mg/l of Timentin and 20 mg/l of hygromycin were added.

[0135] Carbohydrate Determination and Analysis

[0136] Starch was isolated from barley grain using the method of Schulman et al. (1991). Starch content was determined using the total starch analysis kit supplied by Megazyme (Bray, Co Wicklow, Republic of Ireland). The starch content is then compared to control plants. Subtraction of the starch weight from the total grain weight to give a total non-starch content of the grain determines whether the reduction in total weight is due to a reduction in starch content.

[0137] Determination of the amylose content or the amylose/amylopectin ratio was performed by an HPLC method for separating debranched starches or by an iodine binding method, as described by Batey and Curtin (1996). Briefly, starch was defatted by dissolving it in DMSO and reprecipitation with ethanol. After redissolving the starch in DMSO and the addition of water, further dilution, and addition of an iodine/potassium iodide solution, the absorbance of the solution was measured at 605 nm. The amylose content was determined from a standard curve obtained from mixtures of amylose and amylopectin covering the range 0-100% amylose. Analysis of the amylose/amylopectin ratio of non-debranched starches may also be carried out according to Case et al., (1998).

[0138] β-Glucan levels were determined using the kit supplied by Megazyme (Bray, Co Wicklow, Republic of Ireland).

[0139] Starches were debranched and chain length distributions analysed using fluorophore assisted carbohydrate electrophoresis (FACE) using a capillary electrophoresis unit according to Morell et al (1998).

[0140] Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)

[0141] DSC measures the changes to gelatinisation temperatures that have occurred in the starch by changes in amylose and amylopectin ratio. Gelatinisation was measured in a Pyris 1 differential scanning calorimeter (Perkin Elmer, Norwalk Conn., USA). Starch was mixed with water in the ratio of 2 parts water: 1 part starch and this mixture (40-50 mg, accurately weighed) placed in a stainless steel pan and sealed. The sample was scanned at 10° C. per minute from 20° C. to 140° C. with an empty stainless steel pan as a reference. Gelatinisation temperatures and enthalpy were determined using the Pyris software.

[0142] RVA Analysis

[0143] Viscosity was measured on a Rapid-Visco-Analyser (RVA, Newport Scientific Pty Ltd, Warriewood, Sydney) using conditions as a reported by Batey et al., 1997 for wholemeal flours. In order to inhibit α-amylases, silver nitrate was included in all assays at a concentration of 12 mM. The parameters measured were peak viscosity (the maximum hot paste viscosity), holding strength, final viscosity and pasting temperature.

[0144] Flour Swelling

[0145] Flour swelling volume was determined according to the method of Konik-Rose et al (2001). Increased uptake of water was measured by weighing the sample prior to and after mixing the sample in water at defined temperatures and following collection of the gelatinized material.

Example 2 Isolation of SBE Genes from Barley

[0146] Construction of Barley cDNA and Genomic Libraries.

[0147] Barley cDNA and genomic libraries were made by standard methods in phage vectors (Sambrook et al, 1989). A cDNA library was made in the ZipLox vector (Life Technology) according to the protocols supplied with the reagents. The titre of the library was 2×10⁶ pfu tested with Y 1090(ZL) strain of E. coli. The barley genomic library, obtained from E. Lagudah (CSIRO), was made from DNA from the variety Morex. The DNA was digested with MboI and ligated to EcoRI/BamHI digested EMBL3cos vector. Cloned fragments could be released with SalI digestion.

[0148] Isolation of SBEIIa and SBEIIb Gene Sequences from a H. vulgare Genomic Library

[0149] Conditions for library screening were hybridisation at 25% formamide, 5×SSC, 0.1% SDS, 10× Denhardts solution, 100 μg/ml salmon sperm DNA at 42° C. for 16 hr, followed by washing with 2×SSC, 0.1% SDS at 65° C. for 3×1 hr (medium stringency). Clones containing the SBEIIa and SBEIIb genes or substantial portions thereof were isolated and sequenced. DNA sequence comparisons to those of the Accession Nos. listed in Table 1 confirmed that both genes of interest had been isolated from barley. SBEIIa and SBEIIb cDNA sequences may also be obtained using reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) with specific primers, a technique well known in the art. Barley SBEIIa and SBEIIb cDNA sequences are shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, and wheat SBEIIa and SBEIIb genomic sequences shown in FIGS. 3 and 4. TABLE 1 Starch branching enzyme genes characterized from cereals SBE Species isoform Type of clone Accession No. Reference Maize SBE I cDNA U17897 Fisher et al., 1995 genomic AF072724 Kim et al., 1998a SBE IIb cDNA L08065 Fisher et al., 1993 genomic AF072725 Kim et al., 1998 SBE IIa cDNA U65948 Gao et al., 1997 Wheat SBE II cDNA Y11282 Nair et al., 1997 SBE I cDNA and AJ237897 SBE I gene) Baga et al., 1999 genomic AF002821 (SBE I Rahman et al., 1997, pseudogene Rahman et al., 1999 AF076680 (SBE I gene) AF076679 (SBE I cDNA) SBE I cDNA Y12320 Repellin et al., 1997 SBE IIa cDNA and AF338432 (cDNA) Rahman et al., 2001 genomic AF338431 (gene) Rice SBE I cDNA D10752 Nakamura and Yamanouchi, 1992 SBE I genomic D10838 Kawasaki et al., 1993 SBE3 cDNA D16201 Mizuno et al., 1993 Barley SBE IIa and cDNA and AF064563 (SBE IIb Sun et al., 1998 SBE IIb genomic gene) AF064561 (SBE IIb cDNA) AF064562 (SBE IIa gene) AF064560 (SBE IIa cDNA)

Example 3 Constructs for Transformation Experiments to Alter Barley SBEIIA and SBEIIB Expression

[0150] Duplex-RNA (dsRNA) constructs were made to reduce the expression of either the SBEIIa or SBEIIb genes of barley. In such constructs, the desired nucleic acid sequence corresponding to part of the SBEIIa or SBEIIb genes occurred in both the sense and antisense orientations relative to the promoter so that the expressed RNA comprised complementary regions that were able to basepair and form a duplex or double-stranded RNA. A spacer region between the sense and antisense sequences comprised an intron sequence which, when transcribed as part of the RNA in the transformed plant, would be spliced out to form a tight “hairpin” duplex structure. The inclusion of an intron has been found to increase the efficiency of gene silencing conferred by duplex-RNA constructs (Smith et al., 2000). The desired nucleic acid was linked to a high molecular weight glutenin (HMWG) promoter sequence (promoter of the DX5 subunit gene, Accession No. X12928, Anderson et al., 1989) and terminator sequence from the nopaline synthase gene from Agrobacterium (nos3′).

[0151] Duplex-RNA constructs containing SBEIIa or SBEIIb sense/antisense fragments, obtained from wheat SBEIIa and SBEIIb genes in view of the high degree of sequence identity between the wheat and barley genes, were initially generated in the vector pDV03000 and then cut out and ligated to the barley transformation vector pWBVec8. The constructs are shown schematically in FIG. 5. The vector pWBVec8 contains a number of restriction enzyme sites for incorporation of desired DNA sequences.

[0152] The SBEIIa duplex-RNA construct contained 1536 bp of nucleotide sequence amplified by PCR from the wheat SBEIIa gene (GenBank Accession number AF338431, see FIG. 3). This included; a 468 bp sequence that comprises the whole of exons 1 and 2 and part of exon 3 (nucleotide positions 1058 to 1336, 1664 to 1761 and 2038 to 2219 in FIG. 3), with EcoRI and KpnI restriction sites on either side (fragment 1), a 512 bp sequence consisting of part of exons 3 and 4 and the whole of intron 3 of SBEIIa (nucleotide positions 2220 to 2731 in FIG. 3) with KpnI and SacI sites on either side (fragment 2) and a 528 bp fragment consisting of the complete exons 1, 2 and 3 of SBEIIa (nucleotide positions 1058 to 1336, 1664 to 1761 and 2038 to 2279 in FIG. 3) with BamHI and SacI sites on either side (fragment 3). Fragments 1, 2 and 3 were then ligated so that the sequence of fragment 3 was ligated to fragment 2 in the antisense orientation relative to fragment 1. The gene construct in the vector pDV03000 was designated pDV03-IIa and the duplex-RNA gene designated ds-SBEIIa.

[0153] The strategy for the SBEIIb duplex-RNA construct was similar. The SBEIIb construct contained a fragment of 1607 bp amplified by PCR from the wheat SBEIIb gene (sequence is outlined in FIG. 4). This included; a 471 bp sequence that comprises the whole of exons 1 and 2 and part of exon 3 (nucleotide positions 489 to 640, 789 to 934 and 1598 to 1769 in FIG. 4), with EcoRI and KpnI restriction sites on either side (fragment 1), a 589 bp sequence consisting of part of exons 3 and 4 and the whole of intron 3 of SBEIIb (nucleotide positions 1770 to 2364 in FIG. 4) with KpnI and SacI sites on either side (fragment 2) and a 528 bp fragment consisting of the complete exons 1, 2 and 3 of SBEIIb (nucleotide positions 489 to 640, 789 to 934 and 1598 to 1827 in FIG. 4) with BamHI and SacI sites on either side (fragment 3). Fragments 1, 2 and 3 were then ligated so that the sequence of fragment 3 was ligated to fragment 2 in the antisense orientation relative to fragment 1. The SBEIIb duplex-RNA gene construct in the vector pDV03000 was designated pDV03-IIb and the duplex-RNA gene designated ds-SBEIIb.

[0154] The promoter-sense/antisense-terminator cassettes were inserted into the binary vector pWBVec8 using the restriction enzymes ApaI and NotI. The SBEIIa construct in pWBVec8 was designated pVec8-IIa and the SBEIIb construct in pWBVec8 was designated pVec8-IIb. The constructs are shown schematically in FIG. 5.

[0155] The identity between the wheat SBEIIa sequences used and the corresponding barley SBEIIa sequence was 93% using the program Gap to compare the sequences. Similarly, the identity between the wheat SBEIIb sequence and the corresponding barley SBEIIb sequence was 92%. Duplex-RNA technology is effective for silencing the expression of genes having sequences with identities over about 85% with respect to the duplex region, and so the expectation was that the duplex constructed with the wheat sequences would be effective against the barley sequences.

Example 4 Transformation of Barley

[0156] Methods for the transformation of barley, mediated by Agrobacterium tumefaciens or by biolistics, have been described (Tingay et al., 1997; Wan et al, 1994) and can be used to transfer DNA constructs generating transgenic plants. In this example, the gene constructs in binary vectors, made as described above, were introduced into a highly virulent Agrobacterium strain by tri-parental conjugation, which was then used to introduce the T-DNA containing the inhibitory gene (ds-SBEIIa or ds-SBEIIb) and the selectable marker gene (encoding hygromycin resistance, expressed from the CaMV35S promoter) into regenerable cells of the scutellum of immature barley embryos, as follows.

[0157] Developing barley seeds from the variety Golden Promise, 12-15 days after anthesis, were removed from the growing spike of greenhouse grown plants, and sterilised for ten minutes in 20% (v/v) bleach followed by rinsing once with 95% ethanol and seven times with sterile water. Embryos (approx 1.5 to 2.5 mm in size) were then removed from the seeds under aseptic conditions and the axis cut from each embryo. The embryos were placed cut side down on a petri dish containing callus induction medium. The Agrobacterium transconjugants (strain AGL1) were grown in MG/L broth (containing 5 g mannitol, 1 g L-glutamic acid, 0.2 g KH₂PO₄, 0.1 g NaCl, 0.1 g MgSO₄.7H₂O, 5 g tryptone, 2.5 g yeast extract and 1 μg biotin per litre, pH 7.0) containing spectinomycin (50 mg/l) and rifampicin (20 mg/l) with aeration at 28° C., to a concentration of approximately 2-3×10⁸ cells/ml, and then approx 300 μl of the cell suspension was added to the embryos in a petri dish. After 2 min, excess liquid was tipped from the plate and the embryos were flipped so that the cut side (axil side of the scutellum) was upwards. The embryos were then transferred to a fresh plate of callus inducing medium and placed in the dark for 2-3 days at 24° C. The embryos were transferred to callus inducing medium with selection (50 μg/ml hygromycin and 150 μg/ml timentin). Embryos remain on this media for 2 weeks in the dark at 24° C. Healthy callus was then divided and placed on fresh selection media and incubated for a further two weeks at 24° C. in the dark. Following this, the embryos were incubated at 24° C. in the light for 2 weeks on regeneration medium containing cytokinin and transferred to rooting media containing cytokinin and auxin for three 2 week periods. Juvenile plants were then transferred to soil mixture and kept on a misting bench for two weeks and finally transferred to a glasshouse. A total of 400 embryos using pVec8-IIb and 300 embryos using pVec8-IIa were treated by this method and 18 plants from 7 calli for the IIb transformation and 18 plants from 14 calli for the IIa transformation survived on selection medium, suggesting that they were successfully transformed with the gene construct. Not all of the plants that were transformed with the selectable marker gene would be expected to integrate the SBEIIa or SBEIIb inhibitory gene; these could readily be distinguished as described in the following examples.

Example 5 Analysis of Barley Plants and Grain Transformed with Duplex-RNA Constructs

[0158] The presence or absence of the transgene(s) in barley plants or progeny seed or plants was determined or confirmed by PCR techniques or Southern blot hybridisation analysis. DNA was prepared from leaf samples from putative transformed plants by standard methods.

[0159] PCR Analysis of Transformed Barley Plants—Detection of Transgenes.

[0160] The forward and reverse primers used for screening the presence of the ds-SBEIIa transgene were BX17 3′ (5′-CAA CCA TGT CCT GAA CCT TCA CC-3′) SEQ ID No. 5 and AR2akpnR (5′-GGT ACC CCA TCT CCT GGT TTT GGG ACA AC-3′) SEQ ID No. 6, respectively. This primer pair amplified a 569 bp product, corresponding to a position within the HMWG promoter sequence of the transgene to the nucleotide position 2219 in FIG. 3, from those plants containing the ds-SBEIIa transgene. The primers used for screening for the presence of the ds-SBEIIb transgene were BX 17 3′ (as above) and AR2bkpnR (5′-GGT ACC GTC CAT TTC CCG GTG GTG GCA G-3′) SEQ ID No. 7. This primer pair amplified a 571bp product, corresponding to a position within the HMWG promoter to nucleotide position 1768 in FIG. 4, from those lines containing the ds-SBEIIb transgene. PCR amplification was conducted in a 20 μl reaction containing 2.5 units Hotstar Taq, 1× buffer supplied with the enzyme containing 1.5 mM MgCl₂, 0.125 mM each deoxynucleotide triphosphate (dNTPs), 1 μM each of the forward and reverse primers and 100 ng DNA. The PCR programme included an initial denaturation step of 95° C. for 5 min, followed by 36 cycles of 95° C. for 30 sec, 59° C. for 1 min and 72° C. for 2 min, finished with 72° C. for 5 min.

[0161] Positive barley transformants were identified for both of the SBEIIa and SBEIIb constructs (FIG. 6). The data is summarized in Table 2. TABLE 2 Summary of PCR and Southern hybridization results of SBEIIa and SBEIIb transgenic lines of barley. SBEIIb Trans- SBEIIa Trans- trans- form. trans- form. genic event genic event South- line No. no.^(a) PCR Southern line No. no.^(a) PCR ern IIbl.1 1 − − IIa1.1  1 − − IIbl.2 1 − − IIa2.1  2 − − IIbl.3 1 + +(vf) IIa3.1  3 + − IIb2.1 2 + + IIa3.2  3 + − IIb2.2 2 + + IIa4.1  4.1 + + IIb3.1 3 + + IIa4.2  4.2 + + IIb4.1 4 + + IIa5.1  5 + nr IIb4.2 4 + + IIa5.2  5 + + IIb4.3 4 + + IIa6.1  6 + + IIb4.4 4 + + IIa6.2  6 + + IIb4.5 4 + + IIa7.1  7 − − IIb4.6 4 − + IIa9.1  9 + nr IIb5.1 5 + +(f) IIa10.1 10 + nr IIb8.1 8 + − IIa11.1 11 − − IIb8.3. 8 + − IIa13.2 13 + nr IIb8.4 8 + +(f) IIa13.3 13 + nr IIb9.1 9 + + IIa15.1 15 + nr IIa16.1 16 − −

[0162] Southern Blot Hybridization Analysis of Transformed Barley.

[0163] Southern blot hybridization analysis was carried out on DNA from the ds-SBEIIa and ds-SBEIIb transgenic plants and their progeny to confirm the PCR results. EcoR1 digested DNA, prepared from the plants by standard methods, was electrophoresed on 1% agarose gels and blotted on to Hybond N+ nylon membrane (Amersham). Radio-labelled probes were generated from the intron 3 region of the SBEIIa (positions 2220 to 2731 see FIG. 3) and SBEIIb (positions 2019 to 2391 see FIG. 4) genes. These segments are part of the respective ds-SBEIIa and ds-SBEIIb constructs (Example 3) and were radioactively labeled using the Megaprime DNA labeling system (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech UK Ltd) and used for hybridization. The hybridization was carried out in 25% (v/v) formamide, 5×SSC, 0.1% SDS, 10× Denhardt's solution, 100 μg/ml salmon sperm DNA at 42° C. for 16 hr followed by washing in 2×SSC, 0.1% SDS at 65° C. for 3×1 hr. Autoradiography of the membranes revealed positive hybridizing bands in lanes corresponding to plants that were positive for the constructs (FIG. 7). The endogenous barley SBEIIa and SBEIIb gene fragments were not detected in the hybridization because of sequence divergence with the wheat intron 3 probe used.

[0164] The results of the PCR and Southern hybridization analyses are summarized in Table 2. In general, the PCR and Southern hybridization results correlated well. Discrepancies may have been due to false negatives and would readily be resolved by repeated assays. Plants that were positive for the transgenes as demonstrated by both methods included 4 independent transformation events for ds-SBEIIa Southern (IIa 4.1, IIa 4.2, IIa 5 and IIa 6) and 5 independent events for ds-SBEIIb (Event no. IIb 2, IIb3, IIb4, IIb5 and IIb 9).

[0165] Analysis of Barley Endosperm Proteins by Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE).

[0166] To determine the effect of the ds-SBEIIa and ds-SBEIIb transgenes on the barley SBEIIa and SBEIIb gene expression in the transformed plants, specific protein expression in endosperm tissue of developing grains was detected by non-denaturing PAGE and Western blot analysis. Since the T1 seeds (seeds from T0 plants) were expected to be segregating for the transgenes, endosperm from each of ten individual developing T1 grains from each T0 plant, at 20 days after flowering, were analyzed for SBEIIa and SBEIIb protein expression. To preserve the T1 plants, embryos were rescued from the developing grains and cultured to regenerate the T1 plants. Endosperm dissected away from all maternal tissues (0.2 g) was homogenized in 600 μl of 50 mM KPi buffer (42 mM K₂HPO₄ and 8 mM KH₂PO₄), pH 7.5 containing 5 mM EDTA, 20% glycerol, 5 mM DTT and 1 mM Pefabloc. The ground samples were centrifuged for 10 min at 13,000 g and the supernatant aliquoted and frozen at −80° C. until use. Protein levels were measured with Coomassie reagent with BSA as a standard. Total soluble proteins, equivalent to 20 μg, extracted from each endosperm, were loaded per lane and electrophoresed in 8% non-denaturing polyacrylamide gels containing 0.34 M Tris-HCl (pH 8.8), acrylamide (8.0%), ammonium persulphate (0.06%) and TEMED (0.1%). Following electrophoresis, the proteins were transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane according to Morell et al., (1997) and immunoreacted with SBEIIa or SBEIIb specific antibodies. The antibody used for detection of SBEIIa was 3KLH, from rabbits, which had been raised against the synthetic peptide AASPGKVLVPDESDDLGC SEQ ID No. 8 (the sequence from the N-terminus of SBEIIa), and was diluted 1:5000 for use. The antibody used for detection of SBEIIb was R6, raised against the synthetic peptide AGGPSGEVMIGC SEQ ID No. 9 (the deduced sequence from the N-terminus of SBEIIb) and diluted 1:6000 before use. The secondary antibody used was GAR-HRP conjugate (1:3000 dilution), and immunoreactive bands were revealed using an Amersham ECL-detection system.

[0167] The protein expression in the developing T1 seeds from plants transformed with the ds-SBEIIa or ds-SBEIIb genes appeared to be segregating in a 1:2:1 ratio of strong bands: moderate-weak bands: no bands for some of the transformed lines (for example, see FIGS. 8 and 9). This ratio corresponds to the expected segregation ratio of homozygotes (wild type=null for transgene): heterozygotes: homozygous for the transgene. The T1 plants from the rescued embryos are grown to produce T2 seed which are screened by PCR and protein expression analysis to confirm the genetic status of the T1 seed with respect to the transgene.

[0168] These data indicate that the duplex-RNA constructs are effective in reducing the expression of the SBEIIa and SBEIIb genes in endosperm of barley.

[0169] The expression of the SBEIIb gene in transgenic seeds containing the ds-SBEIIa transgene, and the expression of the SBEIIa gene in seeds containing the ds-SBEIIb were also analyzed by the Western blot method. Unexpectedly, transgenic seeds comprising ds-SBEIIa, for example from the transformation event IIa 4.1, were much reduced for SBEIIb. See FIG. 9 which shows only a low level of expression of SBEIIb in seeds from line IIa 4.1.8 (note the very weak bands in 4 of the 7 lanes). This line contained the ds-SBEIIa transgene and had negligible SBEIIa expression. However, the converse effect was not observed in seeds transgenic for ds-SBEIIb. The SBEIIa expression was unaltered in the seeds in which SBEIIb was completely silenced by ds-SBEIIb (FIG. 10) namely, for transgenic lines from the transformation events IIb 4 and IIb 2. The region including exons 1-3 was used for both ds-SBEIIa and ds-SBEIIb duplex constructs. Alignment of the sequences of SBEIIa and SBEIIb in this region revealed only 70% identity. The longest stretch of 100% identity was a region of 21bp in the exon 2. Although it is still possible that expression of SBEIIb was suppressed by the ds-SBEIIa construct due to sequence homology, it is also possible that the activity of SBEIIb was reduced by the ds-SBEIIa transgene by some other mechanism.

[0170] The expression levels of the SBEIIa and SBEIIb genes can also be specifically determined at the mRNA levels through standard techniques such as Northern hybridisation or RT-PCR methods, for example by using probes from non conserved regions or primer pairs which hybridize to unique sites in one of the genes but not the other, for example in the 3′ untranslated regions. Such regions or sites can readily be identified by comparison of the two gene sequences.

Example 6 Analysis of Grain Composition and Content Including Starch

[0171] The grain composition and content, particularly for starch, may be measured using standard techniques such as those described in Example 1.

[0172] After extraction of the soluble proteins as described above, the starch granules from individual endosperm samples from developing seeds containing the ds-SBEIIa transgene were visualized under a light microscope. A significant alteration in starch granule morphology was observed (see for Example FIG. 11) in developing endosperm that were reduced in SBEIIa expression for three of the five transformation events examined: IIa 4.1, IIa 4.2 and IIa 13, but not for events IIa 5 or IIa 6 which may have had a lesser degree of gene inactivation. For example, starch from IIa 4.2.5 seeds, which had no SBEIIa band in the protein immunoblot, was highly distorted compared to the normal granules in IIa 4.2.3 seeds, which had a strong SBEIIa band in the protein immunoblot (Table 3). Light microscopy results were confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), which may also be used to view starch granules directly. To do this, purified starch was sputtered with gold and scanned at 15 kV at room temperature. Seeds reduced for SBEIIa expression showed a distorted irregular shape that was visible under the scanning electron microscope, for example the distortion of granules in IIa 4.2.5 seeds compared to IIa 4.2.3 seeds (FIG. 12).

[0173] In contrast to the plants containing ds-SBEIIa, the plants transformed with ds-SBEIIb showed endosperm starch granules with normal morphology when examined by microscopy, for example line IIb 4.1 (see Table 3). This suggests that reduction of SBEIIb expression alone did not substantially alter starch granule morphology. TABLE 3 Starch granule morphology of T1 endosperm tissues of barley ds-SBEIIa and ds-SBEIIb transgenic lines Starch granule morphology Protein band on (light No Transgenic line immunoblot microscopy) 1 IIa 4.1.8 No band Distorted 2 IIa 4.1.4 Strong band normal 3 IIa 4.1.3 Strong band normal 4 IIa 4.2.1 No band Distorted 5 IIa 4.2.9 No band distorted 6 IIa 4.2.5 No band distorted 7 IIa 6.2.8 No band normal 8 IIa 5.2.3 No band normal 9 IIa 6.2.2 Strong band normal 10 IIa 4.2.3 Strong band normal 11 IIa 13.1.9 No band normal 12 IIa 13.1.10 Weak band normal 13 IIa 13.1.3 Strong band normal 14 IIa 13.2.4 No band Some distortion 15 IIa 13.1.6 Weak band normal 16 IIb 4.1.9 No band normal 17 IIb 4.1.8 No band normal 18 IIb 4.1.2 No band normal

[0174] Birefringence is the ability of a substance to refract light in two directions; this produces a dark cross called a “maltese cross” on each starch granule when viewed with a polarizing microscope. Birefringence is an indicator of the degree of ordered structural organization of the polymers within the granules (Thomas and Atwell, 1999). Starch granules from endosperm of IIa 4.2.5 seeds (reduced for SBEIIa activity) under polarized light indicated that there is significant loss of birefringence in these granules compared to that from IIa 4.2.3 seeds (wild type) On average, 44.8% of the granules in IIa 4.2.5 seeds were without birefringence in contrast to 2.2% in IIa 4.2.3 seeds (Table 4). Loss of birefringence in starch granules is generally well correlated with increased amylose content. TABLE 4 Birefringence of starch granules from T1 endosperm of ds-SBEIIa barley transgenic lines Micro- No. of granules No. of granules No. of granules scopic showing showing showing Line field no BF partial BF full BF A4.2.5 1 38 19 12 (SBEIIa 2 48 22 9 negative) 2 26 25 35 4 17 12 25 Total 129 (44.8%) 78 (27.1%) 81 28.1%) A4.2.3 1 5 8 205 (control) 2 3 9 104 3 3 5 200 4 2 2 85 Total 13 (2.1%) 24 (3.8%) 593 (94.1%)

[0175] Grain weight analysis of transgenic seeds, from plants grown in the greenhouse, from the line IIa 4.2 containing ds-SBEIIa, revealed that there was no significant reduction in grain weight and therefore starch production, even in the seeds with highly distorted starch granules (Table 5). This is in contrast to the reduced grain weight observed in barley that is mutant in the SSIIa gene, which shows significantly reduced starch production (Morell et al, 2003). This suggests that the average grain weight and therefore the yield of field-grown barley with reduced SBEIIa activity in the endosperm is about normal. TABLE 5 Grain weight of T1 seeds from the SBE IIa barley transgenic line IIa 4.2 Seed from line Starch granule Grain weight No. No.: morphology (mg) 1 IIa 4.2.1 Normal 46.4 2 IIa 4.2.2 Highly 39.3 distorted 3 IIa 4.2.3 Distorted 39.0 4 IIa 4.2.4 Distorted 40.8 5 IIa 4.2.5 Highly 37.3 distorted 6 IIa 4.2.6 Normal 41.8 7 IIa 4.2.7 Normal 35.0 8 IIa 4.2.8 Highly 41.5 distorted 9 IIa 4.2.9 Highly 41.1 distorted 10 IIa 4.2.10 Highly 38.6 distorted

[0176] Amylose and Amylopectin Levels in Transgenic Barley Grain.

[0177] Seed with starch granules having a distorted shape have been reported in high amylose barley (Morell et al, 2003) and in low amylopectin (LAPS) maize having about 90% amylose in starch (Sidebottom et al., 1998). Amylose content may be determined by size exclusion HPLC in 90% (w/v) DMSO, or by iodine blue value (iodometric method), as described in Example 1. From the grain weight and amylose content, the amount of amylose deposited per grain can be calculated and compared for transgenic and control lines.

[0178] Starch was isolated from barley grains of the T1 generation, segregating for ds-SBEIIa, or the T2 generation (probably homozygous for ds-SBEIIa) from plants transgenic for the ds-SBEIIa gene, or resulting from a cross between line IIa 4.2.5 and line IIb 4.3.8 (containing both ds-SBEIIa and ds-SBEIIb), and the amylose contents determined by the colorimetric method of Morrison and Laignelet (1983). The amylose content of starch from five pooled grain samples, listed below, was determined. The absorbance read at 650 nm was converted to percentage amylose content using the regression equation derived from standard samples (ranging from 0 to 100% amylose) made from potato amylose and amylopectin, Y=137.38x −30.361, where x is the absorbance at 650 nm and Y is the percentage amylose content.

[0179] Samples:

[0180] Pool 1: seven T1 seeds that showed severe starch granule distortion from the transgenic line IIa 4.1

[0181] Pool 2: six T1 seeds that showed some granule distortion from the transgenic line IIa 4.1

[0182] Pool 3: seven T1 seeds that had normal looking granules from the transgenic line IIa 4.1

[0183] Pool 4: six T2 seeds that showed severe granule distortion from the transgenic line IIa 4.2.5

[0184] Pool 5: five F1 seeds that showed severe starch granule distortion from the cross between IIa 4.2.5 and IIb 4.3.8 (ds-SBEIIb transgenic line).

[0185] Controls: Barley SSIIa mutant M292 (Morel et al., 2003), barley cv Himalaya and SSIIa wheat mutant (Yamamori et al. 2000).

[0186] Starch from grains from barley with reduced SBEIIa activity, based on the distorted starch granules, showed more than 80% amylose. The amylose content increased with the degree of distortion of the starch granules, compare pools 1, 2 and 3 (Table 6). The amylose contents for pools 1 and 2 were higher than for starch from the SSIla mutant barley line M292 (Table 6). The amylose content was even higher (>90%) in the pool 5 consisting of F1 grains from the cross between the ds-SBEIIa and ds-SBEIIb transgenic lines. It is noted that the absorbance values obtained by this method may be influenced slightly by the structure of amylopectin. TABLE 6 Amylose content in the grain of transgenic barley lines reduced for SBEIIa activity. Amylose content (% of starch) Starch sample Replication 1 Replication 2 Replication 3 Mean Pool 1 85.0 80.2 80.2 81.8 Pool 2 60.6 52.1 51.7 54.8 Pool 3 39.4 40.5 40.0 40.0 Pool 4 84.4 84.6 88.3 85.8 Pool 5 95.3 94.8 106.1 98.7 M292 barley 66.9 60.5 58.4 61.9 Himalaya barley 21.8 21.6 22.3 21.9 SSIIa wheat mutant 52.1 46.7 54.5 51.1

[0187] This implies that the amylopectin content in the starch of these grains is considerably reduced, from about 75% in wild-type to less than 20% or even less than 10%, since cereal starch is made up almost entirely of amylose and amylopectin.

Example 7 Mutation of SBEIIA Gene in Barley

[0188] Mutation of the SBEIIa gene in barley leading to non expression of SBEIIa can be achieved through either gamma ray irradiation or chemical mutagenesis, for example with ethyl methane sulfonate (EMS). For gamma ray induced mutation, seeds are irradiated at a dose of 20-50 kR from a ⁶⁰Co source (Zikiryaeva and Kasimov, 1972). EMS mutagenesis is performed by treating the seeds with EMS (0.03%, v/v) as per Mullins et al., (1999). Mutant grains are identified on the basis of increased amylose content or altered starch grain morphology and confirmed by the methods described above. Mutants in SBEIIa can be re-mutagenized in a second round and the progeny screened for loss of SBEIIb activity in addition to SBEIIa, or the SBEIIa mutant can be crossed with an SBEIIb mutant to combine the mutations and produce a non-transgenic variety of barley substantially lacking SBEII activity in the endosperm.

Example 8 Cloning of the SBEI Gene and Constructs for Inhibition of SBEI Expression in Barley

[0189] Isolation of the SBEI gene is achieved by hybridization of probes to the barley cDNA or genomic library or by PCR methods. The PCR primer design may be based on the homologous genes from wheat, for example, based on the DNA sequence set forth in Genbank AF076679. The primers used might be

[0190] 5′ ACGAAGATGCTCTGCCTCAC 3′ SEQ ID No. 10 and 5′ GTCCAACATCATAGCCATTT 3′ SEQ ID No 11 which should result in a PCR product of about 1015 bp.

[0191] The SBEI gene sequences are used to construct inhibitory gene constructs in a similar fashion to those described above for SBEIIa and SBEIIb, and introduced into barley.

Example 9 Combination of SBEIIA Mutants with Other Starch Synthesis Mutants

[0192] Plants transgenic for ds-SBEIIa and reduced for SBEIIa activity were crossed with the barley lines M292 (SSIIa mutant) and High Amylose Glacier (HAG). The following crosses were established:

[0193] 1) line IIa 4.1.10×HAG

[0194] 2) line IIa 4.1.16×HAG

[0195] 3) line IIa 4.1.20×M292

[0196] 4) line IIa 4.1.19×HAG

[0197] The F1 plants are self-fertilized and lines homozygous for both mutations are identified by genetic and molecular analysis. Combining the ds-SBEIIa transgene with the SSIIa mutation is expected to yield starches with very high amylose content together with high β-glucan content. Combining the ds-SBEIIa transgene with the HAG mutation may yield further alteration in starch composition with improved functionality in addition to high amylose content.

Example 10 Characteristics of Field-Grown Barley

[0198] Kernel weights and β-glucan contents were measured for several field-grown varieties of barley including the M292 and M342 lines (ssIIa mutant, approx 60-65% amylose). It is noted from the results (Table 7) that M292 and M342 grain were reduced in kernel size and increased in β-glucan content relative to the wild-type varieties (3.0-6.0% β-glucan). The average weight of field-grown wild-type grain was in the range 35-45 g/1000 kernels, grown under these conditions. The β-glucan content in the grain of wild-type varieties was in the range 3-6%. TABLE 7 Kernel weight and β-glucan levels in field-grown barley: 1000 kernel Cultivar weight^(a) (g) % beta-glucan^(a) Tantangera 34.90, 35.40 3.01, 3.37 Sloop 37.90, 41.90 3.04, 2.54 Waxiro 36.60, 37.10 5.14, 6.86 Schooner 42.60, 38.60 3.85, 3.73 Gairdner 44.80, 37.10 4.61, 4.19 Namoi 40.80, 40.80 5.19, 4.34 Himalaya 39.60, 37.90 6.04, 5.50 M292 25.10, 28.70 10.01, 9.53  M342 28.90, 30.30 8.02, 8.65 Tantangera x M292 DH 21.20, 20.40  9.08, 10.95

[0199] It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications and alterations to these methods may be made without departing from the scope of the invention.

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1 11 1 2554 DNA Hordeum vulgare SSBEIIa cDNA 1 ggcgagatgg cggaagtaaa catgacaggg ggggctgcag aaaaacttga atcttcagaa 60 ccgactcagg gtattgcgga aacaatcact gatggtgtaa ccaaaggagt taaagaacta 120 gtcgttgggg agaaaccgca agttgtccca aaaccaggag atgggcaaaa aatatacgag 180 attgacccaa cgctgaaaga ttttcggagc catcttgact accgatacag cgaatacaag 240 agaattcgtg ctgctattga ccaacatgaa ggtggattgg aagttttttc tcgtggttat 300 gaaaagcttg gatttacccg cagtgctaaa ggtatcactt accgagaatg ggctcctgga 360 gcgcattctg cagcattagt aggtgacttc aacaattgga acccaaatgc agatactatg 420 accagagatg attatggtgt ttgggagatt ttcctcccta acaatgctga tggatcccct 480 gctattcctc atggctcacg tgtaaagata cggatggata ctccatctgg tgtgaaggat 540 tcaatttctg cttggatcaa gttctctgtg caggctccag gtgaaatacc attcaatggc 600 atatattatg atccacctga agaggagaag tatgtcttcc aacatcctca acctaaacga 660 ccagagtcac taaggatata tgaatcacac attggaatga gcagcccgga accgaagata 720 aattcatatg ctaattttag ggatgaggtg ctgccaagaa ttaaaaggct tggatacaat 780 gcagtgcaga taatggcaat ccaggagcat tcatactatg cgagctttgg gtaccatgtt 840 actaattttt ttgcaccaag tagccgtttt ggaactccag aggacttaaa atccttgatc 900 gatagagcac atgagcttgg tttgcttgtt cttatggata ttgttcatag tcattcgtca 960 aataataccc ttgacggttt gaatggtttc gatggcactg atacacatta cttccacggt 1020 ggtccacgtg gccatcattg gatgtgggat tctcgtctgt tcaactatgg gagttgggaa 1080 gtattaagat tcttactgtc aaacgcgaga tggtggcttg aagaatataa gtttgatgga 1140 tttcgatttg atggggtgac ttccatgatg tatactcacc atggattaca aatgacattt 1200 actgggaact atggcgagta ttttggattc gccactgatg ttgatgcggt ggtttactta 1260 atgctggtca acgatctaat tcatggactt tatccggatg ctgtatccat tggtgaagat 1320 gtcagcggaa tgcctacatt ttgcatccct gtcccagatg gtggtgttgg ttttgactat 1380 cgcctgcata tggctgtagc agataaatgg attgaactcc tcaagcaaag tgacgaatct 1440 tggaaaatgg gcgatattgt gcacacccta acaaatagaa ggtggcttga gaagtgtgtc 1500 acttatgcag aaagtcatga tcaagcacta gttggtgaca agactattgc attctggttg 1560 atggataagg atatgtatga tttcatggct ctggatagac cttcaacccc tcgcattgat 1620 cgtggcatag cattacataa aatgatcagg cttgtcacca tgggtttagg tggcgaaggc 1680 tatcttaatt tcatgggaaa tgagtttggg catcctgaat ggatagattt tccaagaggt 1740 ccgcaaactc ttccaaccgg caaagttctc cctggaaata acaatagtta tgataaatgc 1800 cgccgtagat ttgatcttgg agatgcagat tttcttagat atcgtggtat gcaagagttc 1860 gatcaggcaa tgcagcatct tgaggaaaaa tatgggttta tgacatctga gcaccagtat 1920 gtttctcgga aacatgagga agataaggtg atcatcttcg aaagaggaga tttggtattt 1980 gttttcaact tccactggag caatagcaaa aaagactacc gtgttgggtg ttccaagcct 2040 gggaagtaca aggtggcctt agactctgat gatgcactct ttggtggatt cagcaggctt 2100 gatcatgatg tcgactactt cacaaccgaa catccgcatg acaacaggcc acgctctttc 2160 tcggtgtaca ctccgagcag aactgcggtc gtgtatgccc ttacagagta agaaccagca 2220 gctgtttgtt acaaggcaaa aagagaactc cagtgagctc gtggattgtg agcgaagcga 2280 cgggcaacgg tccgagactg ttctaaccgc cgtgattggg aggggatcgt gcctcttccc 2340 cagatgctag gaggatcaga tggataggta gcttgctggc gagccctcgt tttcaagtga 2400 cctgcgaaag aaaatggacg ggcctgggtg acattttgta gtgctgcact gaaccatcct 2460 atctctcaca ttcccggttg tttatgtaca tataaactaa taattgcccg tgcgcttcaa 2520 cttggacaaa aaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaa aaaa 2554 2 2780 DNA Hordeum vulgare SSBEIIb cDNA 2 ggcgagatgg cggcgccggc gttcgcagtt tccgcggcgg ggatcgcccg gccatcggct 60 cgtcgatcca gcggggcaga gccgagatcg ctgctcttcg gccgcaacaa gggcacccgt 120 ttcccccgtg ccgtcggcgt cggaggttct gggtggcgcg tggtcatgcg cgcgggcggc 180 ccgtccgggg aggtgatgat ccctgacggc ggtagtggcg gaagcggaac accgccttcc 240 atcgagggtt ccgttcagtt cgagtctgat gatctggagg ttccattcat cgacgatgaa 300 ccaagcctgc acgatggagg tgaagatact attcggtctt cagagacata tcaggttact 360 gaagaaattg atgctgaagg cgtgagcaga atggacaaag aatcatccac ggtgaagaaa 420 atacgcattg tgccacaacc cggaaatgga cagcaaatat acgacattga cccaatgctc 480 cgagacttta agtaccatct tgagtatcga tacagcctat ataggagaat acgttcagac 540 attgatgaat acgatggagg catggatgta ttttcccgcg gctacgagaa gtttggattt 600 gttcgcagcg ctgaaggtat cacttaccga gaatgggctc ctggagcaga ttctgcagca 660 ttagttggcg acttcaacaa ttgggatcca actgcagacc atatgagcaa aaatgacttg 720 ggtatttggg agatttttct gccaaacaat gcagatggtt cgccgccaat tcctcatggc 780 tcacgggtga aggtgcggat ggatactcca tctgggacaa aggattcaat tcctgcttgg 840 atcaagtact ccgtgcagac tccaggagat ataccataca atggaatata ttatgaccct 900 cctgaagagg agaagtatgt attcaagcat cctcaaccta aacgaccaaa atcattgcgg 960 atatatgaaa cacatgttgg catgagtagc ccggaaccaa agatcaacac atatgcaaac 1020 ttcagagatg aggtgcttcc aagaattaaa agacttggat acaatgcagt tcaaataatg 1080 gcaatccaag agcattcata ctatggaagc tttgggtacc atgttaccaa tttctttgca 1140 ccaagtagcc gttttgggtc cccagaagat ttaaaatcct tgattgatag agctcacgag 1200 cttggtttgc ttgtcctgat ggatgttgtt cacagtcacg catcaagtaa taccttggac 1260 ggtttgaatg gttttgatgg cacggataca cattactttc atggcggctc acggggccat 1320 cactggatgt gggattctcg tgtgttcaac tacgggaata aggaagttat aaggtttcta 1380 ctttccaatg caagatggtg gctagaggaa tataagttcg atggtttccg attcgacggc 1440 gcgacctcca tgatgtatac ccaccatgga ttacaagtaa cctttacagg gagctaccat 1500 gaatattttg gctttgccac ggatgtagat gcagttgttt acttgatgct ggtgaatgat 1560 ctaattcacg cgctttatcc tgaagccgtt actattggtg aagatgttag tggaatgcct 1620 acatttgccc ttcctgttca agttggtggg gttggttttg actatcgctt acatatggcc 1680 gttgccgata aatggattga acttctcaaa ggaagcgatg aaggttggga gatgggtaat 1740 attgtgcaca cactaacaaa tagaaggtgg ttggaaaagt gtgttactta tgctgaaagt 1800 catgatcaag cacttgttgg agacaagact attgcattct ggttgatgga caaggatatg 1860 tatgatttca tggctctgaa cggaccttcg acacctaata ttgatcgcgg aatagcactg 1920 cataaaatga ttagacttat cacaatggct ttaggaggag agggttatct taactttatg 1980 ggaaatgagt tcgggcatcc tgaatggata gactttccaa gaggcccaca agtacttcca 2040 actggtaagt tcatcccagg aaataacaac agttacgaca aatgccgtcg aagatttgac 2100 ctgggtgatg cagaatttct caggtatcat ggtatgcagc aatttgatca ggcaatgcag 2160 catcttgagg aaaaatatgg ctttatgaca tcagaccacc agtacgtatc tcggaaacac 2220 gaggaagata aggtgatcgt gtttgaaaaa ggggacttgg tatttgtgtt caacttccac 2280 tggagtaata gctatttcga ctaccgggtc ggttgcttaa agcctgggaa gtacaaggtg 2340 gtgttagact cagacgctgg actctttggt ggatttggta ggatccatca cactggagag 2400 cacttcacta atggctgcca acatgacaac aggccccatt cgttctcagt gtacactcct 2460 agcagaacct gtgttgtcta tgctccaatg aactaacagc aaagtgcagc atgcgcatgc 2520 gcgctgttgt tgcttagtag caacataaat cgtatggtca atacaaccag gtgcaaggtt 2580 taataaggtt tttttttttt tttttttttt tttttttttt tttttttttt ttttgcttca 2640 accagtcctg gatagacaag acaacatgat gttgtgctgt gtgctcccaa tccccagggc 2700 gttgtgagga aaacatgctc atctgtgtta ccattttatg aatcagcaac gatacttctc 2760 ccaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaa 2780 3 11476 DNA Aegilops tauschii MISC_FEATURE (1)...(11476) n is a, c, g or t 3 agaaacacct ccattttaga tttttttttt gttcttttcg gacggtgggt cgtggagaga 60 ttagcgtcta gttttcttaa aagaacaggc catttaggcc ctgctttaca aaaggctcaa 120 ccagtccaaa acgtctgcta ggatcaccag ctgcaaagtt aagcgcgaga ccaccaaaac 180 aggcgcattc gaactggaca gacgctcacg caggagccca gcaccacagg cttgagcctg 240 acagcggacg tgagtgcgtg acacatgggg tcatctatgg gcgtcggagc aaggaagaga 300 gacgcacatg aacaccatga tgatgctatc aggcctgatg gagggagcaa ccatgcacct 360 tttcccctct ggaaattcat agctcacact tttttttaat ggaagcaaga gttggcaaac 420 acatgcattt tcaaacaagg aaaattaatt ctcaaaccac catgacatgc aattctcaaa 480 ccatgcaccg acgagtccat gcgaggtgga aacgaagaac tgaaaatcaa catcccagtt 540 gtcgagtcga gaagaggatg acactgaaag tatgcgtatt acgatttcat ttacatacat 600 gtacaaatac ataatgtacc ctacaatttg ttttttggag cagagtggtg tggtcttttt 660 tttttacacg aaaatgccat agctggcccg catgcgtgca gatcggatga tcggtcggag 720 acgacggaca atcagacact caccaactgc ttttgtctgg gacacaataa atgtttttgt 780 aaacaaaata aatacttata aacgagggta ctagaggccg ctaacggcat ggccaggtaa 840 acgcgctccc agccgttggt ttgcgatctc gtcctcccgc acgcagcgtc gcctccaccg 900 tccgtccgtc gctgccacct ctgctgtgcg cgcgcacgaa gggaggaaga acgaacgccg 960 cacacacact cacacacggc acactccccg tgggtcccct ttccggcttg gcgtctatct 1020 cctctccccc gcccatcccc atgcactgca ccgtacccgc cagcttccac ccccgccgca 1080 cacgttgctc ccccttctca tcgcttctca attaatatct ccatcactcg ggttccgcgc 1140 tgcatttcgg ccggcgggtt gagtgagatc tgggcgactg gctgactcaa tcactacgcg 1200 gggatggcga cgttcgcggt gtccggcgcg actctcggtg tggcgcgggc cggcgtcgga 1260 gtggcgcggg ccggctcgga gcggaggggc ggggcggact tgccgtcgct gctcctcagg 1320 aagaaggact cctctcgtac gcctcgctct ctcgaatctc ccccgtctgg ctttggctcc 1380 ccttctctct cctctgcgcg cgcatggcct gttcgatgct gttccccaat tgatctccat 1440 gagtgagaga gatagctgga ttaggcgatc gcgcttcctg aacctgtatt ttttcccccg 1500 cggggaaatg cgttagtgtc acccaggccc tggtgttacc acggctttga tcattcctcg 1560 tttcattctg atatatattt tctcattctt tttcttcctg ttcttgctgt aactgcaagt 1620 tgtggcgttt tttcactatt gtagtcatcc ttgcattttg caggcgccgt cctgagccgc 1680 gcggcctctc cagggaaggt cctggtgcct gacggcgaga gngacgactt ggcaagtccg 1740 gcgcaacctg aagaattaca ggtacacaca ctcgtgccgg taaatcttca tacaatcgtt 1800 attcacttac caaatgccgg atgaaaccaa ccacggatgc gtcaggtttc gagcttcttc 1860 tatcagcatt gtgcagtact gcactgcctt gttcattttg ttagccttgg ccccgtgctg 1920 gctcttgggc cactgaaaaa atcagatgga tgtgcattct agcaagaact tcacaacata 1980 atgcaccgtt tggggtttcg tcagtctgct ctacaattgc tatttttcgt gctgtagata 2040 cctgaagata tcgaggagca aacggcggaa gtgaacatga caggggggac tgcagagaaa 2100 cttcaatctt cagaaccgac tcagggcatt gtggaaacaa tcactgatgg tgtaaccaaa 2160 ggagttaagg aactagtcgt gggggagaaa ccgcgagttg tcccaaaacc aggagatggg 2220 cagaaaatat acgagattga cccaacactg aaagattttc ggagccatct tgactaccgg 2280 taatgcctac ccgctgcttt cgctcatttt gaattaaggt cctttcatca tgcaaatttg 2340 gggaacatca aagagacaaa gactagggac caccatttca tacagatccc ttcgtggtct 2400 gagaatatgc tgggaagtaa atgtataatt gatggctaca atttgctcaa aattgcaata 2460 cgaataactg tctccgatca ttacaattaa agagtggcaa actgatgaaa atgtggtgga 2520 tgggttatag attttacttt gctaattcct ctaccaaatt cctagggggg aaatctacca 2580 gttgggaaac ttagtttctt atctttgtgg cctttttgtt ttggggaaaa cacattgcta 2640 aattcgaatg attttgggta tacctcggtg gattcaacag atacagcgaa tacaagagaa 2700 ttcgtgctgc tattgaccaa catgaaggtg gattggaagc attttctcgt ggttatgaaa 2760 agcttggatt tacccgcagg taaatttaaa gctttattat tatgaaacgc ctccactagt 2820 ctaattgcat atcttataag aaaatttata attcctgttt tcccctctct tttttccagt 2880 gctgaaggta tcgtctaatt gcatatctta taagaaaatt tatattcctg ttttccccta 2940 ttttccagtg ctgaaggtat cacttaccga gaatgggctc cctggagcgc atgttatgtt 3000 cttttaagtt ccttaacgag acaccttcca atttattgtt aatggtcact attcaccaac 3060 tagcttactg gacttacaaa ttagcttact gaatactgac cagttactat aaatttatga 3120 tctggctttt gcaccctgtt acagtctgca gcattagtag gtgacttcaa caattggaat 3180 ccaaatgcag atactatgac cagagtatgt ctacagcttg gcaattttcc acctttgctt 3240 cataactact gatacatcta tttgtattta tttagctgtt tgcacattcc ttaaagttga 3300 gcctcaacta catcatatca aaatggtata atttgtcagt gtcttaagct tcagcccaaa 3360 gattctactg aatttagtcc atctttttga gattgaaaat gagtatatta aggatgaatg 3420 aatacgtgca acactcccat ctgcattatg tgtgcttttc catctacaat gagcatattt 3480 ccatgctatc agtgaaggtt tgctcctatt gatgcagata tttgatatgg tcttttcagg 3540 atgattatgg tgtttgggag attttcctcc ctaacaacgc tgatggatcc tcagctattc 3600 ctcatggctc acgtgtaaag gtaagctggc caattattta gtcgaggatg tagcattttc 3660 gaactctgcc tactaagggt cccttttcct ctctgttttt tagatacgga tggatactcc 3720 atccggtgtg aaggattcaa tttctgcttg gatcaagttc tctgtgcagg ctccaggtga 3780 aatacctttc aatggcatat attatgatcc acctgaagag gtaagtatcg atctacatta 3840 cattattaaa tgaaatttcc agtgttacag ttttttaata cccacttctt actgacatgt 3900 gagtcaagac aatacttttg aatttggaag tgacatatgc attaattcac cttctaaggg 3960 ctaaggggca accaaccttg gtgatgtgtg tatgcttgtg tgtgacataa gatcttatag 4020 ctcttttatg tgttctctgt tggttaggat attccatttt ggccttttgt gaccatttac 4080 taaggatatt tacatgcaaa tgcaggagaa gtatgtcttc caacatctca actaaacgac 4140 cagagtcact aaggatttat gaatcacaca ttggaatgag cagcccggta tgtcaataag 4200 ttatttcacc tgtttctggt ctgatggttt attctatgga ttttctagtt ctgttatgta 4260 ctgttaacat attacatggt gcattcactt gacaacctcg attttatttt ctaatgtctt 4320 catattggca agtgcaaaac tttgcttcct ctttgtctgc ttgttctttt gtcttctgta 4380 agatttccat tgcatttgga ggcagtgggc atgtgaaagt catatctatt ttttttttgt 4440 cagagcatag ttatatgaat tccattgttg ttgcaatagc tcggtataat gtaaccatgt 4500 tactagctta agatttccca cttaggatgt aagaaatatt gcattggagc gtctccagca 4560 agccatttcc taccttatta atgagagaga gacaaggggg gggggggggg gggggttccc 4620 ttcattattc tgcgagcgat tcaaaaactt ccattgttct gaggtgtacg tactgcaggg 4680 atctcccatt atgaagagga tatagttaat tctttgtaac ctacttggaa acttgagtct 4740 tgaggcatcg ctaatatata ctatcatcac aatacttaga ggatgcatct gaanatttta 4800 gtgtgatctt gcacaggaac cgaagataaa ttcatatgct aattttaggg atgaggtgtt 4860 gccaagaatt aaaaggcttg gatacaatgc agtgcagata atggcaatcc aggagcattc 4920 atactatgca agctttgggt attcacacaa tccatttttt tctgtataca cntcttcacc 4980 catttggagc tattacatcc taatgcttca tgcacataaa atatttggat ataatccttt 5040 attagatata tagtacaact acacttagta ttctgannaa naagatcatt ttattgttgt 5100 tggcttgttc caggtaccat gttactaatt tttttgcacc aagtagccgt tttggaactc 5160 cagaggactt aaaatccttg atcgatagag cacatgagct tggtttgctt gttcttatgg 5220 atattgttca taggtaatta gtccaattta attttagctg ttttactgtt tatctggtat 5280 tctaaaggga aattcaggca attatgatac attgtcaaaa gctaagagtg gcgaaagtga 5340 aatgtcaaaa tctagagtgg cataaggaaa attggcaaaa actagagtgg caaaaataaa 5400 attttcccat cctaaatggc agggccctat cgccgaatat ttttccattc tatataattg 5460 tgctacgtga cttctttttt ctcagatgta ttaaaccagt tggacatgaa atgtatttgg 5520 tacatgtagt aaactgacag ttccatagaa tatcgttttg taatggcaac acaatttgat 5580 gccatagatg tggattgaga agttcagatg ctatcaatag aattaatcaa ctggccatgt 5640 actcgtggca ctacatatag tttgcaagtt ggaaaactga cagcaatacc tcactgataa 5700 gtggccaggc cccacttgcc agcttcatac tagatgttac ttccctgttg aattcatttg 5760 aacatattac ttaaagttct tcatttgtcc taagtcaaac ttctttaagt ttgaccaagt 5820 ctattggaaa atatatcaac atctacaaca ccaaattact ttgatcagat taacaatttt 5880 tattttatta tattagcaca tctttgatgt tgtagatatc agcacatttt tctatagact 5940 tggtcaaata tagagaagtt tgacttagga caaatctaga acttcaatca atttggatca 6000 gagggaacat caaataatat agatagatgt caacacttca acaaaaaaat cagaccttgt 6060 caccatatat gcatcagacc atctgtttgc tttagccact tgctttcata tttatgtgtt 6120 tgtacctaat ctacttttcc ttctacttgg tttggttgat tctatttcag ttgcattgct 6180 tcatcaatga ttttgtgtac cctgcagtca ttcgtcaaat aatacccttg acggtttgaa 6240 tggtttcgat ggcactgata cacattactt ccacggtggt ccacgcggcc atcattggat 6300 gtgggattct cgtctattca actatgggag ttgggaagta tgtagctctg acttctgtca 6360 ccatatttgg ctaactgttc ctgttaatct gttcttacac atgttgatat tctattctta 6420 tgcaggtatt gagattctta ctgtcaaacg cgagatggtg gcttgaagaa tataagtttg 6480 atggatttcg atttgatggg gtgacctcca tgatgtatac tcaccatgga ttacaagtaa 6540 gtcatcaagt ggtttcagta acttttttag ggcactgaaa caattgctat gcatcataac 6600 atgtatcatg atcaggactt gtgctacgga gtcttagata gttccctagt atgcttgtac 6660 aattttacct gatgagatca tggaagattg gaagtgatta ttatttattt tctttctaag 6720 tttgtttctt gttctagatg acatttactg ggaactatgg cgaatatttt ggatttgcta 6780 ctgatgttga tgcggtagtt tacttgatgc tggtcaacga tctaattcat ggactttatc 6840 ctgatgctgt atccattggt gaagatgtaa gtgcttacag tatttatgat ttttaactag 6900 ttaagtagtt ttattttggg gatcagtctg ttacactttt tgttaggggt aaaatctctc 6960 ttttcataac aatgctaatt tataccttgt atgataatgc atcacttang taatttgaaa 7020 agtgcaaggg cattcaagct tacgagcata ttttttgatg gctgtaattt atttgatagt 7080 atgcttgttt gggtttttca ataagtggga gtgtgtgact aatgttgtat tatttattta 7140 attgcggaag aaatgggcaa ccttgtcaat tgcttcagaa ggctaacttt gattccataa 7200 acgctttgga aatgagaggc tattcccaag gacatgaatt atacttcagt gtgttctgta 7260 catgtatttg taatagtggt ttaacttaaa ttcctgcact gctatggaat ctcactgtat 7320 gttgtnagtg tacacatcca caaacaagta atcctgagct ttcaactcat gagaaaatan 7380 gangtccgct tctgccagca ttaactgttc acagttctaa tttgtgtaac tgtgaaattg 7440 ttcaggtcag tggaatgcct acattttgca tccctgttcc agatggtggt gttggttttg 7500 actaccgcct gcatatggct gtagcagata aatggattga actcctcaag taagtgcagg 7560 aatattggtg attacatgcg cacaatgatc tagattacat tttctaaatg gtaaaaagga 7620 aaatatgtat gtgaatatct agacatttgc ctgttatcag cttgaatacg agaagtcaaa 7680 tacatgattt aaatagcaaa tctcggaaat gtaatggcta gtgtctttat gctgggcagt 7740 gtacattgcg ctgtagcagg ccagtcaaca cagttagcaa tattttcaga aacaatatta 7800 tttatatccg tatatganga aagttagtat ataaactgtg gtcattaatt gtgttcacct 7860 tttgtcctgt ttaaggatgg gcagtaggta ataaatttag ccagataaaa taaatcgtta 7920 ttaggtttac aaaaggaata tacagggtca tgtagcatat ctagttgtaa ttaatgaaaa 7980 ggctgacaaa aggctcggta aaaaaaactt tatgatgatc cagatagata tgcaggaacg 8040 cgactaaagc tcaaatactt attgctacta cacagctgcc aatctgtcat gatctgtgtt 8100 ctgctttgtg ctatttagat ttaaatacta actcgataca ttggcaataa taaacttaac 8160 tattcaacca atttggtgga taccaganat ttctgccctc ttgttagtaa tgatgtgctc 8220 cctgctgctg ttctctgccg ttacaaaagc tgttttcagt tttttgcatc attatttttg 8280 tgtgtgagta gtttaagcat gttttttgaa gctgtgagct gttggtactt aatacattct 8340 tggaagtgtc caaatatgct gcagtgtaat ttagcatttc tttaacacag gcaaagtgac 8400 gaatcttgga aaatgggcga tattgtgcac accctaacaa atagaaggtg gcttgagaag 8460 tgtgtaactt atgcagaaag tcatgatcaa gcactagttg gtgacaagac tattgcattc 8520 tggttgatgg ataaggtact agctgttact tttggacaaa agaattactc cctcccgttc 8580 ctaaatataa gtctttgtag agattccact atggaccaca tagtatatag atgcatttta 8640 gagtgtagat tcactcattt tgcttcgtat gtagtccata gtgaaatctc tacagagact 8700 tatatttagg aacggaggga gtacataatt gatttgtctc atcagattgc tagtgttttc 8760 ttgtgataaa gattggctgc ctcacccatc accagctatt tcccaactgt tacttgagca 8820 gaatttgctg aaaacgtacc atgtggtact gtggcggctt gtgaactttg acagttatgt 8880 tgcaattttc tgttcttatt tatttgattg cttatgttac cgttcatttg ctcattcctt 8940 tccgagacca gccaaagtca cgtgttagct gtgtgatctg ttatctgaat cttgagcaaa 9000 ttttattaat aggctaaaat ccaacgaatt atttgcttga atttaaatat acagacgtat 9060 agtcacctgg ctctttctta gatgattacc atagtgcctg aaggctgaaa tagttttggt 9120 gtttcttgga tgccgcctaa aggagtgatt tttattggat agattcctgg ccgagtcttc 9180 gttacaacat aacattttgg agatatgctt agtaacagct ctgggaagtt tggtcacaag 9240 tctgcatcta cacgctcctt gaggttttat tatggcgcca tctttgtaac tagtggcacc 9300 tgtaaggaaa cacattcaaa aggaaacggt cacatcattc taatcaggac caccatacta 9360 agagcaagat tctgttccaa ttttatgagt ttttgggact ccaaagggaa caaaagtgtc 9420 tcatattgtg cttataacta cagttgtttt tataccagtg tagttttatt ccaggacagt 9480 tgatacttgg tactgtgctg taaattattt atccgacata gaacagcatg aacatatcaa 9540 gctctctttg tgcaggatat gtatgatttc atggctctgg ataggcttca actcttcgca 9600 ttgatcgtgg catagcatta cataaaatga tcaggcttgt caccatgggt ttaggtggtg 9660 aaggctatct taacttcatg ggaaatgagt ttgggcatcc tggtcagtct ttacaacatt 9720 attgcattct gcatgattgt gatttactgt aatttgaacc atgcttttct ttcacattgt 9780 atgtattatg taatctgttg cttccaagga ggaagttaac ttctatttac ttggcagaat 9840 ggatagattt tccaagaggc ccacaaactc ttccaaccgg caaagttctc ccctggaaat 9900 aacaatagtt atgataaatg ccgccgtaga tttgatcttg taagttttag ctgtgctatt 9960 acattccctc actagatctt tattggccat ttatttcttg atgaaatcat aatgtttgtt 10020 aggaaagatc aacattgctt ttgtagtttt gtagacgtta acataagtat gtgttgagag 10080 ttgttgatca ttaaaaatat catgattttt tgcagggaga tgcagatttt cttagatatc 10140 gtggtatgca agagttcgat caggcaatgc agcatcttga ggaaaaatat ggggtatgtc 10200 actggtttgt ctttgttgca taacaagtca cagtttaacg tcagtctctt caagtggtaa 10260 aaaaagtgta gaattaattc ctgtaatgag atgaaaactg tgcaaaggcg gagctggaat 10320 tgcttttcac caaaactatt ttcttaagtg cttgtgtatt gatacatata ccagcactga 10380 caatgtaact gcagtttatg acatctgagc accagtatgt ttcacggaaa catgaggaag 10440 ataaggtgat catcctcnaa aagaggagat ttggtatttg ttttcaactt ccactggagc 10500 aatagctttt ttgactaccg tgttgggtgt tccaagcctg ggaagtacaa ggtatgcttg 10560 ccttttcatt gtccaccctt caccagtagg gttagtgggg gcttctacaa cttttaattc 10620 cacatggata gagtttgttg gtcgtgcagc tatcaatata aagaataggg taatttgtaa 10680 agaaaagaat ttgctcgagc tgttgtagcc ataggaaggt tgttcttaac agccccgaag 10740 cacataccat tcattcatat tatctactta agtgtttgtt tcaatcttta tgctcagttg 10800 gactcggtct aatactagaa ctattttccg aatctaccct aaccatccta gcagttttag 10860 agcagcccca tttggacaat tggctgggtt tttgttagtt gtgacagttt ctgctatttc 10920 ttaatcaggt ggccttggac tctgacgatg cactctttgg tggattcagc aggcttgatc 10980 atgatgtcga ctacttcaca accgtaagtc tgggctcaag cgtcacttga ctcgtcttga 11040 ctcaactgct tacaaatctg aatcaacttc ccaattgctg atgcccttgc aggaacatcc 11100 gcatgacaac aggccgcgct ctttctcggt gtacactccg agcagaactg cggtcgtgta 11160 tgcccttaca gagtaagaac cagcagcggc ttgttacaag gcaaagagag aactccagag 11220 agctcgtgga tcgtgagcga agcgacgggc aacggcgcga ggctgctcca agcgccatga 11280 ctgggagggg atcgtgcctc ttccccagat gccaggagga gcagatggat aggtagcttg 11340 ttggtgagcg ctcgaaagaa aatggacggg cctgggtgtt tgttgtgctg cactgaaccc 11400 tcctcctatc ttgcacattc ccggttgttt ttgtacatat aactaataat tgcccgtgcg 11460 ctcaacgtga aaatcc 11476 4 6550 DNA Aegilops tauschii MISC_FEATURE (1)...(6550) n is a, c, g or t 4 aagctttgta gccttgcacg ggctccccaa caaactgcct cactcgattg tcaaaaaagt 60 aaaaatgatt gtagaaaaaa aaactgactc actcgtcact accctaccgt cctacatgac 120 acctggccgc aagacgacgc cgtcctcctg ccgcgcgcgt ccgcgatcac accaccgcaa 180 aaaccaaaac ctcttcgccg gtgcgtccca cgctaccatc catgcagccg tccgcccgcg 240 cgcgcgttgc ccgcaccacc cgctggcggc caccacgccg ccactctcgc gtgaaggctc 300 cgtccgcttc ctcctagttc cactctctct ccgtgctagc agtatatagc atccgccctc 360 cgccccctcc caatcttaga acacccctcc ctttgcctcc tcatttcgct cgcgtgggtt 420 taagcaggag acgaggcggg gtcagttggg cagttaggtt ggatccgatc cggctgcggc 480 ggcggcgacg ggatggctgc gccggcattc gcagtttccg cggcggggct ggcccggccg 540 tcggctcctc gatccggcgg ggcagagcgg agggggcgcg gggtggagct gcagtcgcca 600 tcgctgctct tcggccgcaa caagggcacc cgttcacccc gtaattattt gcgccacctt 660 tctcactcac attctctcgt gtattctgtc gtgctcgccc ttcgccgacg acgcgtgccg 720 attccgtatc gggctgcggt gttcagcgat cttacgtcgg ttccctcctg gtgtggtgat 780 gtctgtaggt gccgtcggcg tcggaggttc tggatggcgc gtggtcatgc gcgcgggggg 840 gccgtccggg gaggtgatga tccctgacgg cggtagtggc ggaacaccgc cttccatcga 900 cggtcccgtt cagttcgatt ctgatgatct gaaggtagtt ttttttttgc atcgatctga 960 aggtacttga catatactac tgtattaccc tgagtaaata ctgccaccat atttttatgg 1020 ttcgcttgaa atacctgttt acttgctacg gttttcactt tcattgagac gtcggacgaa 1080 attcactgaa ttcctataat ttggtagaca ccgaaatata tactactcct tccgtcccat 1140 aatataagag cgtttttggc accttatatt atagggcgga gggagtacct tttaggtcaa 1200 aatattgtgg tagtttcaat tgtatacaag aattcaaata ttttttttaa aaaaaaatca 1260 actaattggt tgagtttcaa gtgaagcgtt ttggtccttt ggctgagatg taaaccgaaa 1320 tcactgaaat tcatagtagc cgaaacttta atagaactga aactcaaaat ctgctatccg 1380 gcgaaattct aaagatttgc ttatttcaca cgtaggttgc agtacaccct ctttctaatt 1440 tattggggaa ggggtattat tatcttgtta gtacctgcct gcatgacaat tgaaatctaa 1500 gacaaaacac catatgcgag gcctacacac ggtaggttgg tttacaacta tgtgtgccac 1560 agttcgtctg aactttttgt ccttcacatc gtgttaggtt ccattcattg atgatgaaac 1620 aagcctacag gatggaggtg aagatagtat ttggtcttca gagacaaatc aggttagtga 1680 agaaattgat gctgaagaca cgagcagaat ggacaaagaa tcatctacga gggagaaatt 1740 acgcattctg ccaccaccgg gaaatggaca gcaaatatac gagattgacc caacgctccg 1800 agactttaag taccatcttg agtatcggta tgcttcgctt ctattgtgtg cactttaaaa 1860 acaatttaca gtctttgata agatgtgaat ggctgcttgc tgtgacacga aactcttgaa 1920 gttcgtagtc actcttgtgt gttcatggtt ctgaggtaac atggtaaccg aacaaaaata 1980 ggaaagtggc aagcactgca atgtgagcta ctgataacca cccattgtaa ttgggtacac 2040 tgattaatat atatgtcttc atgggctcta ttttttttca atatctatgc caattgaaca 2100 acaatgcttt gtggacgggt gttcttttac cctcttcttc tatcaataga tgatatgcat 2160 actcatgcgt atcctacaaa aaattgaaca acaatgccac tttcccccgt gttgcttttg 2220 taaggatgaa acacatatgt ccagatcaaa ctatactagc agtctaactg tgccttaatg 2280 gatcaaaaac agatatagcc tatacaggag aatacgttca gacattgatg aacacgaagg 2340 aggcatggat gtattttccc gcggttacga gaagtttgga tttatgcgca ggtgaaattt 2400 cttgactaaa taactatgta tctacctttt ctttgtactc tatcaacatt cctcttccca 2460 tgcagcgctg aaggtatcac ttaccgagaa tgggctcctg gagcagatgt acgttcttct 2520 aaccatctga tcgtttacct gactatacta attctatctt tcaactaatt gtgaataatt 2580 actgctcatc agctatccta aggttgggga ttttgcacct cccagatgaa cagcatatta 2640 agtcgcacaa ctagcattat taagaactaa ctcctgcttc caattgcagt ctgcagcatt 2700 agttggcgac ttcaacaatt gggatccaaa tgcagaccat atgagcaaag tatgcatgta 2760 gtttcacaaa tatatcatat tttctttgta gatttttttt tttagatcgg cttatctatt 2820 taaatgtggt tgaatataca ccttatatgt acgttgagct gtaaatatag ttggaagtgt 2880 ttaggagtat taaattcact ggactctatt ctttcacttg cctgttgcac gagcccatta 2940 ctagatatca atgttgatga tgcttttgtt gtatgaggtc gaagtgaaac atgcatgtta 3000 cccttttata taagtaaggt tgcacatgta ttttttatga tctaaacatt atttactgat 3060 tttgttcttg caagacacta agcagtttta cataataatg gcgttggagc aggccgactg 3120 cacatctgaa ctgtagctcc atgtggttga tatagattac aaatgctcat attcaatgta 3180 actgttttca gaatgacctt ggtgtttggg agatttttct gccaaacaat gcagatggtt 3240 cgccaccaat tcctcacggc tcacgggtga aggttgtttt cttctccttg ccaacggtgt 3300 taggctcagg aacatgtcct gtattactca gaagctcttt tgaacatcta ggtgagaatg 3360 gatactccat ctgggataaa ggattcaatt cctgcttgga tcaagtactc cgtgcagact 3420 ccaggagata taccatacaa tggaatatat tatgatcctc ccgaagaggt attttacttc 3480 atcttctgtg cttttagatt tcagatattt ttattagaag aaaattatga ttttttccct 3540 cacgaacctt cccaattgct atttcaagct gtcctactta tttgctgctg gcatcttatt 3600 tttctattct ctaaccagtt atgaaattcc ttacatgcat atgcaggaga agtatgtatt 3660 caagcatcct caacctaaac gaccaaaatc attgcggata tatgaaacac atgttggcat 3720 gagtagcccg gtatttcatc tttaccatgt attccataaa tgaagttagc tatatgcagt 3780 tcaaatttat ttacaggttg ttacaatggt atttttgtgt tggtgccctt ctttcgtttt 3840 ataagtaaaa aacttatcat aaatttattt gttatgccgc ttggttaata caatctgaaa 3900 aatgtaactg tggacaatct agaactagat aatacaaatc tgaaaaaaca tgctggaata 3960 gtgtcatttc agtcaactag gatgttttga atgctcaaga gaagtactag tgtgtagcat 4020 caaaagctgg tgtccatttg ttcaaatgtt taattaacac tatagtgaaa acaagtaatt 4080 gcacaaagaa acaagtaatt gcccaagttc atatgttttt tcactatatt acatgtttca 4140 tcaacaattt aattaacctc attccttaca aacatttgta tttacatttg ttcctacata 4200 tatagttatt ttatatatca actttataaa tcatgactgt tataattaaa accgatggta 4260 tatcaacgat tgagataatt tggcatatgt ggatgaattt tgtggcttgt tatgctcttg 4320 ttttaataac ataataaata gattatgctt gttggtagcc tttttacatt aacacatggg 4380 caattacttg tttctttgtg caaccaggaa ccaaagatcg acacatatgc aaacttcagg 4440 gatgaggtgc ttccaagaat taaaagactt ggatacaatg cagtgcaaat aatggcaatc 4500 caagagcact catactatgg aagctttggg tagttctctg ggtcgatttc tggttctttt 4560 agttatcttt tgtccataga acatatttca actttagcaa ctatactatt atattaactt 4620 ttcagctatt gtcttncttt ttcttatgtg agagactgct gcntcttgct acttcctgtg 4680 ttctcattca gagtanacat cttatganta gacaactcta tgtngacatt ccggaagtat 4740 ncactggctg attcggtcta aaataacata ctgctcagat agccacataa cagtacgatt 4800 acacacataa tgaccatgtt tgcatagagt ggcggtagta tgttcctcac catactagca 4860 taatgacttg ttatataaga gtatatcata ttaacttctt ttccaatgac atggaagctg 4920 taacaacttt caaatcattt ttgtctttta agtgctgctt ttttcctgtt tgacaattaa 4980 tacaatacca cttttatgtg tttttacttc tattgcaggt accatgttac caatttcttt 5040 gcaccaagta gccgttttgg gtccccagaa gatttaaaat ctttgattga tagagctcac 5100 gagcttggct tggttgtcct catggatgtt gttcacaggt acttaatgta atttgaggtt 5160 ggcgtgttaa gttcacatta atcttaattc tttatttcaa ttcctatggc ctctctccta 5220 gattggaaca gtaaaagcat catccagttt gtataaattg ctaaaagaac attttacatg 5280 ttaagtattt tcaattacta tgaaacatat aaatttacat acttattgat tttacgacag 5340 aagtaccgat ctcacaagat gaacaattgg ttgatcacat atcatttcat actacaatac 5400 aagaaaatga atagagaacg agttaatatt agccttggta aaatcagcaa cttgtttgga 5460 aataaagtat agtgatgcca gtgcaaanaa caaggcatca agttggtttc agctcccacg 5520 gtcggtgcta gctgtcaagg gtaatttgca cgtagtcgca catagatttg tgtgggagtg 5580 gaaagtaacc acagattgtc cgaggaacac gggacacacg tcttagccac aggtttgggc 5640 tccccttgat gcgggtagta gctttactcc ttatatgaaa ttatctcaag atagatttca 5700 atttggggtt acacttanga actcancaag ttaaggatca actcnctgag ttctatacga 5760 ctgatctttg accgagatat cttgatcagg ctaagtanca aaatccaggc cttgagatgt 5820 tgaacatgtc cttcattttg ggctgggtgc ccttgggcat aaggtgtngt ccttccttca 5880 tgtgcttctt gcagcgtatg acataaacnt cctctgagtt ggtanatgca cggttccctt 5940 tgaggaaatc aggggtagtc gcatctnggg aaagttggtc acccangcat ggatcctcng 6000 cgcacaccgg gcaaacacgg tgaaaccact tctcctcgac actagctaac ttgacattca 6060 agcaaactaa gaatataact ttatntctaa atgaaccgga caccctcctt gtgcctgcac 6120 ctacagagta caatgccagt tttggactga actcttgtgt tcatgtatgt gctaatnaca 6180 taggttctaa ccatgattct aaatagcgcg ttataactcc actatagtaa tgctatagcg 6240 tttanaagat cccgcactaa gggaccttag tccaaataca tgatcaaaca ttttacatag 6300 cgcgctatag ctatttaaaa ctatggtcac ccgctaagag gcataactcg ctatttaaaa 6360 ctatggttct aacttttaat ctattttatg tcttggtcca aagccccttt ttgttctata 6420 gctttacctt tgggttgaga tcacccttaa cccattggta atcctggttg atttactcca 6480 tcctttcttg cgtagcttta cttttggttt tttgtttctc acagtcacgc gtcaaataat 6540 accttggacg 6550 5 23 DNA Artificial Sequence Oligonucleotide Primer 5 caaccatgtc ctgaaccttc acc 23 6 29 DNA Artificial Sequence Oligonucleotide Primer 6 ggtaccccat ctcctggttt tgggacaac 29 7 27 DNA Artificial Sequence Oligonucleotide Primer 7 ggtaccgtcc atttcccggt ggtggca 27 8 18 PRT Artificial Sequence fragment of N-terminus of SBEIIa protein 8 Ala Ala Ser Pro Gly Lys Val Leu Val Pro Asp Glu Ser Asp Asp 1 5 10 15 Leu Gly Cys 9 12 PRT Artificial Sequence fragment of N-terminus of SBEIIb protein 9 Ala Gly Gly Pro Ser Gly Glu Val Met Ile Gly Cys 1 5 10 10 20 DNA Artificial Sequence Oligonucelotide Primer 10 acgaagatgc tctgcctcac 20 11 20 DNA Artificial Sequence Oligonucelotide Primer 11 gtccaacatc atagccattt 20 

1. Grain obtained from a barley plant, the barley plant having a reduced level of SBEIIa enzyme activity in the endosperm, starch of said grain having a relative amylose content of at least 40% (w/w).
 2. The grain of claim 1 wherein the barley plant additionally has reduced SBEIIb enzyme activity in the endosperm.
 3. The grain of claim 1 wherein the barley plant comprises an exogenous nucleic acid expressing an inhibitor of SBEIIa.
 4. The grain of claim 3 wherein the inhibitor causes reduced expression of the SBEIIa enzyme.
 5. The grain of claim 1 wherein the grain is non-shrunken.
 6. The grain of claim 5 having a starch content of at least 25% (w/w).
 7. The grain of claim 6 having a starch content of at least 35% (w/w).
 8. The grain of claim 7 having a starch content of about 45-50% (w/w).
 9. The grain of claim 5 having an average length to thickness ratio of less than about 3.5
 10. The grain of claim 5 having an average weight of at least about 36 mg.
 11. The grain of claim 1 wherein the relative amylose content of the starch is at least 60% (w/w).
 12. The grain of claim 11 wherein the relative amylose content of the starch is at least 70% (w/w).
 13. The grain of claim 12 wherein the relative amylose content of the starch is at least 80% (w/w).
 14. The grain of claim 1 which is milled, ground, pearled, rolled, kibbled, cracked or whole grain.
 15. Barley grain comprising starch having a relative amylose content of at least 75% (w/w).
 16. The barley grain of claim 15 wherein the amylose content is measured by the iodometric method.
 17. The grain of claim 15 which comprises 3-6% (w/w) β-glucan.
 18. The grain of claim 15 which comprises 6-8% (w/w) β-glucan.
 19. Flour or wholemeal obtained from the grain according to claim
 1. 20. Starch obtained from grain of a barley plant, the barley plant having a reduced level of SBEIIa enzyme activity in the endosperm, said starch being unmodified and having a relative amylose content of at least 40% (w/w).
 21. The starch of claim 20 wherein the barley plant additionally has a reduced level of SBEIIb enzyme activity in the endosperm.
 22. The starch of claim 20 wherein the barley plant comprises an exogenous nucleic acid expressing an inhibitor of SBEIIa.
 23. The starch of claim 22 wherein the inhibitor causes a reduced level of expression of the SBEIIa enzyme.
 24. The starch of claim 20 wherein the relative amylose content of the starch is at least 60% (w/w).
 25. The starch of claim 24 wherein the relative amylose content of the starch is at least 70% (w/w).
 26. The starch of claim 25 wherein the relative amylose content of the starch is at least 80% (w/w).
 27. A composition comprising the starch according to claims 20 and another food ingredient or water.
 28. A composition comprising starch granules of barley endosperm and another food ingredient or water, wherein the starch of the starch granules comprises at least 75% (w/w) amylose.
 29. A barley plant having a reduced level of SBEIIa enzyme activity, wherein starch in grain of the barley plant has a relative amylose content of at least 40% (w/w).
 30. The barley plant of claim 29 additionally having reduced SBEIIb enzyme activity in the endosperm.
 31. The barley plant of claim 29 comprising an exogenous nucleic acid expressing an inhibitor of SBEIIa.
 32. The barley plant of claim 31 wherein the inhibitor causes reduced expression of the SBEIIa enzyme.
 33. The barley plant of claim 29 wherein the grain is non-shrunken.
 34. The barley plant of claim 29 wherein the grain comprises a starch content of at least 25% (w/w).
 35. The barley plant of claim 34 wherein the grain comprises a starch content of at least 35% (w/w).
 36. The barley plant of claim 35 wherein the grain comprises a starch content content of about 45-50% (w/w).
 37. The barley plant of claim 29 wherein the grain has an average length to thickness ratio of less than about 3.5.
 38. The barley plant of claim 29 wherein the grain has an average weight of at least about 36 mg.
 39. The barley plant of claim 29 wherein the relative amylose content of the starch is at least 60% (w/w).
 40. The barley plant of claim 39 wherein the relative amylose content of the starch is at least 70% (w/w).
 41. The barley plant of claim 40 wherein the relative amylose content of the starch is at least 80% (w/w).
 42. A method of producing a barley plant capable of producing grain having starch comprising at least 40% amylose, the method comprising the steps of a) introducing a genetic variation into a parent barley plant or seed; and b) identifying a progeny plant or seed of the parent barley plant or seed of step a), wherein the progeny plant or seed has reduced SBEIIa activity in the endosperm.
 43. The method of claim 42 wherein introducing the genetic variation of step a) comprises introducing an exogenous nucleic acid expressing an inhibitor of SBEIIa activity.
 44. The method of claim 42 wherein step a) comprises mutagenesis of the parent barley plant or seed the plant is derived from. 45 A method of producing a barley plant having reduced activity of both SBEIIa and SBEIIb enzyme activities in the endosperm which comprises: a) mutagenising seed from a plant having reduced activity of SBEIIa enzyme activity; or b) mutagenising seed from a plant having reduced activity of SBEIIb enzyme activity; or c) crossing a plant having reduced SEBEIIa enzyme activity with a plant having reduced SBEIIb enzyme activity; and identifying a barley plant having reduced activity of both SBEIIa and SBEIIb.
 46. Barley starch granules comprising a reduced level of SBEIIa protein and comprising starch having an amylose content of at least 40% (w/w). 